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[文摘] 2021-22 Gifford Lectures 1 〈倫理學的消失〉

文/邱慕天

▍〇、前言:2021-2022 吉福德講座

關於已經於蘇格蘭有133年歷史的吉福德講座,產出過太多擘劃時代神學的經世洞見。我稱它是英美神學界最有歷史學術品牌的神學講座。雖說是致力與闡揚「自然神學」的啟示,然而 1937-38 年度與 2000-01 這兩屆他們也格外特別地邀請來了巴特(Karl Barth) 以及侯活士(Stanley Hauerwas)這兩位「根本上反對自然神學直接認識真理有效取徑」的講者。

吉福德講座對我來說是神學的「學術深刻」及「學術寬廣」的雙重代表。今年度(2021-2022)吉福德講座則由愛丁堡大學基督教倫理和實踐神學榮休教授兼聖安德魯斯榮譽教授奧利弗·奧多諾凡(Oliver O’Donovan)主講〈倫理的消失〉。系列講座於 2021 年 10 月 26 日星期二開始至 2021 年 11 月 11 日星期四結束,每週二和周四 17:30 格林威治時間在線上舉行。

Peut être une image de 1 personne et texte qui dit ’OLIVER O'DONOVAN University of St Andrews 26 ocT- 11 NOV, 2021’

奧多諾凡「自然神學」的倫理進路建構,在《復活與道德秩序》(Resurrection and Moral Order: An Outline for Evangelical Ethics. Eerdmans, 1986)呈現令我獲益良多,成為本人在《當耶穌遇見同志》(真哪噠,2020)一書中〈創造與救贖視角下的同性婚姻〉兩個章節,在「創造」一角的保守論點最關鍵的支撐引述。

本文為第一場10月26日第一場的講座的筆記摘要,正好帶出他神哲學涵養深厚的精妙思考,將「人對神」的倫理回應方向,既非留在「自然主義」的現象(以「存在」證成倫理價值)、也非政治上的「基要主義」或「進步主義」強調的抽象(以刻板的「教條」或沒有驗證根基的「權利」證成倫理價值)。

以下字裡行間會有夾帶一些個人的擴充闡釋及例證。若個人理解有誤,文責乃在於我。若文中有洞見及精彩,則必須是歸給·奧多諾凡教授。

Resurrection and Moral Order: An Outline for Evangelical Ethics

▍一、倫理學的消失:

奧多諾凡指出,傳統上倫理學從神學、哲學、法學三者來汲取觀點,進行抉擇思辯中。但於近代大學的學術中,倫理學不再被視作一門獨立有效的合法思維方式:隨著社會科學以及量化資料方法興起,各種「專業倫理」的討論出現;實則是倫理學被放到界定的學門之下成為子目錄,「社會科學」終將以自己的規則擴張,並僭越職權壓倒「倫理學」——這項在19世紀中的基督教學者紐曼(John Henry Newman)看向大學教育現場時就已經發現:

由是,我們不再討論與教導「人生的善」(what constitutes a good life?),反而是作為各種社會運作功能下閹割的人思考局部的善:醫師的醫療倫理、企業家的商業倫理、親族關係中的家族倫理、婚戀中的好男人/好女人、學術研究中的學術倫理;對待動植物和環境,講生態倫理、環境倫理;我們還有校園倫理、師生倫理、性別倫理….

事實上,「倫理」是我們人與「事物樣貌的正確認識」的關係擺放和展現。因此當我們思考「倫理(學)的消失」,我們回去看到的問題應該是:最初(未被切割)的倫理學誕生,乃是出自思考「人的有限生命(to be)」與在我們生前生後「宇宙/自然存有(being)」的合宜關係。

因此追溯現代科學方法壓倒倫理的背後原因,將發現我們失去的一種討論倫理的方式。即倫理的真正穩定來源必須是神學,或可說是非常接近神學的思考。

▍二、善的爭辯(The contested reality of the good)

有時我們會以為說「存在必有理由」,然而變將這個理由視作「善」。然而「善」(good)與「事實性」(factuality)並不是同一件事。

「善」在古典的形上真理觀中,更接近於一件事的「名實相符」。科學的「事實性」,首先來自於分類學(classification)和類型學(typology)。亞當作為世上的科學家初號機,他給予了自己的孩子「名字(proper name)」,但是他給與世上其他神所造的一切事物的則是「學名」。

例如他將伊甸園的樹叫做樹,將草叫做草——這些乃是分類。樹的種類再細分下去,將需要他依照各種細緻的觀察方式去界定區分——但是不論再怎麼區分,「樹」並不會達到「人」的善惡相性。人在這裡,是被上帝起名、獨一無二所造的。

奧古斯丁將善與惡的作出二元區分時,他所定義的不是方式不是「倫理」而是「道德」。他對道德善惡雙重定義的第一個要點是「有意志表現」出來的行為;其二是該意志表現行為的「後果」——(Evil are things done, not things as they are- evil is not a category of ontology).

這與物種的德行(倫理)善惡就區別出來了。

For example, an argument can be wrong because it’s inherently false (leading to wrong conclusion). Or it may be wrong because it fails at being an argument to begin with.

再讓我們假想一棵「壞的樹」:

What constitutes a bad tree? It must be a « tree » failing at being a proper tree. It’s factually a tree of sorts that just cannnot live up to its name as a tree. But a tree may be bad while not being evil.

壞掉的樹,不用要會是邪惡的樹。但是「壞人」的一種是「惡人」。「好人」與「善人」的對應關係也會構成我們在這裡的主要思考(real good vs. realization of good)。

在人的倫理學思考上,我們會將「道德」帶進來;因為我們認為「人的善」並不是在我們給自己「命名」的工作中達成;卻是一種給我們活著的身份帶出名字的「行動」。

Not conferring good on something real, but the realization of potential good in something. Real good may be expressed in action and deed- actions that do not conform to what is out there but to our own projection of reality.

在古典時期的倫理學,於「形上學」追尋善,因為他們認為「高級的真實」,也就一個事物好的/完美的/理想的型態就是「至善」——好像寫一份考卷,考出了滿分那樣。

但從新柏拉圖主義否定神學出現了一個小眾形上哲學傳統,嘗試尋找「超越於存在( being)以外的上帝」並且「以及超越的位格,對存在界發生影響(engagement)」 。到了12世紀中世紀經院神學家兩位彼得——朗巴德(Peter Lombard, 1096-1160)與亞伯拉德(Peter Abelard, c 1079-1142)的意志主義(voluntarism)將這個神秘傳統發展至羽翼豐滿,開啟了我們在人類哲學意義上現代性,

至此,人類開始追求一種與「客觀實在」脫鉤的「倫理學」,是關於以人類抽象觀念所「創造」和「投射」出的世界樣貌。在這裡我們的倫理助動詞從「是」( »be »as in « is to be » )變成「應該」( »ought » to be)。從這裡義務和權利(obligation / right)誕生,出自「實踐理性」中我們所思考的「應然」——「應然」開始涉及人類對世界自然構成的既存樣貌的秩序「改造」和「創造」,而不僅僅是「認識」或「恢復」了。

有別於「實然」狀態的倫理思考,康德在實踐理性對「應然」事物成立的要求只有它的「一致適用性」:我們可以試著在腦中創立一個「規則」,然後想想當這項規則成為普世定律之後,是否依然為我們共同所要?如果答案是肯定的,那麼這就足以被嚴展成為一項「權利/普世人權」(例如:無條件基本工資、精神病不得被判處死刑)。

事實上,康德並未否定古典以「大自然」的認識作為人類哲學上謙卑自省的傳統。康德與4世紀的「金口」屈梭多模(John Chrysostom)異口同聲表達了兩個不同渠道、但對人類的人性成長有啟發、對人的道德境界帶來擴張的意識對應之物:「創造」(實然)與「良知」(應然)兩種啟示來源。

▍三、道德實在論的恢復(The Recovery of Moral Realism)

傳統上的西方道德哲學,在以形上學和本體論為反思根基時,將重點是放在對「自發性的限制」(the agent’s [moral] restraint of their sponteneity)。例如動物是自發性追求「愉悅感」,而且我們所知道的動物並沒有辦法執行這種道德克制,因此牠們的行為與後果只有一種直線的對應關係。

例如籠子裡的老鼠在有選擇的平行實驗中並無法拒絕灌注了嗎啡的飲水,即使牠發現了這讓牠變得虛弱;但吸毒上癮的人,會去試著戒毒並且脫離危害他們的毒品,即是這需要極大的意志克制嘗試。

因此,西方倫理學會將「德性」的追求放在比「自發性謀求愉悅」放在更高的位置「善」。儘管兩者都是對一種本體論「真實」(人的生存樣貌)的呈現,但「德性」的善(moral good as being virtuous)在乎堅持與意志施展後的行動,也從而被賦予了道德性——它可以是一種來自良知思考後的「道德義務」善(moral obligation),如此就與本來按照慾望衝動所為的善(natural good as being spontaneous)產生了對照。

為了將道德的「義務理論」發展出普世客觀性,20世紀上半德國哲學家席勒(Max Scheler, 1874-1928)提出的「價值倫理學」曾經短暫流行過,席勒他的理論可以用「顏色」比喻來說,一件事物的善惡程度可以對應於黑白,有各種過渡色階。人絕大多數的行為,都處在黑白中間的相對灰色地帶,卻仍有程度之別。

這個道德客觀論,面對了三個猛烈批判。

第一個主要困難首先在於它難以建立一套「放諸四海」的價值秩序。倫理價值並不像是我們可以交易的貨幣一般,有一個中央金準會作莊公告和調節輸出它的匯率——人如何定義,拯救你的爸爸還是我的媽媽、還是一百個陌生人擁有更高的道德位階呢?這些是可以互相比較及交換的價值嗎?

當然在刑法民法上,我們試圖為一些行為決定大致的嚴重程度和量刑,就像法官斷案,要決定什麼程度算作正當防衛、什麼樣的刑期符合比例原則。對「直系血親」或「長年對自己家暴的配偶」出手攻擊,致其「輕傷/重傷/死亡」,都會在法律的道德見解上得到不同的量刑。

然而這套價值體系,實際上就像「火車難題」要告訴我們的,是一個破綻很大、十足有限的系統。有人願意為了救一隻羊放棄其他99隻,難道他內心的道德值就是-98¥?

再來,德性倫理學主張的思考也與他所提出價值倫理學的相反。席勒價值倫理學所想的是:一件「可樂之事」(例如吃得飽足的愉悅感),將會給予了「吃大餐/請客吃飯」這件事賦予行為價值。但同樣站在道德實在論的德性倫理學卻指出,行為本身(activity)本身才是證成事物樣貌(states of affairs)的由來。例如我們「提出疑問」的行為不是用「得到滿意答案」來被賦予價值(有時也無法得到,因為它是一件「外在善」),而是用來「尋求關注」(這對應的是提問行動本身的「內在善」)。

外在善:The good given with the world and in the world to which we responded with enjoyment with wonder vs.
內在善:The good enacted to which we know only in and through practical exertion.

第三個反對價值倫理學的論點,來自法國當代哲學界「神學轉向思潮」後現代哲學家拉克斯特(1953-)提出的意義「延異」性——意即,若我們想以一項意志行動產生的「外部效果影響」來定義其「道德價值」,那麼事件的「先後順序」就很重要。後發的事件會被算入前者的影響效果;「餘波」震盪之際,行為的道德值也無法評定。

然而由於事物的效應會有連鎖反映在人間世界中,事物的連鎖效應並無法在某一個點被「確定地關閉」——就像我們無法稱一個「活人」為「快樂的人」(因為他可能在死前一刻質疑一切事物的虛無而在悔恨癲狂中悲慘死去);那麼即使我們稱納粹大屠殺為「邪惡」,但後來的世界在幾十年的政治與倫理反省、轉型正義積極,是否可說是我們「賦予」了那集中營死去的數百萬猶太人生命和納粹暴行積極「價值」呢?這聽來十分荒謬。

約瑟在被賣埃及的時候是悲慘的,但是當他成為宰相的時候,當初這事情又救了許多人。不幸的是,把希伯來人引進埃及之事,讓他們的後裔受到苦待;苦待申冤判來了拯救的先知,但先知在拯救之際卻又引動神蹟造成許多埃及家庭的無妄悲劇....

當曹操在逃亡到父執輩友人呂伯奢家寄居時,因為疑心病而在呂伯奢出門時誤殺了其全家。當呂伯奢返家時,曹操所做的不是向他懺悔,而是回身拔刀殺了呂伯奢。他對陳宮的解釋是:我向呂伯奢懺悔,他也不會原諒釋懷。只有殺死他,這樁滅門血案才會成為道德閉環。「寧可我負天下人,休叫天下人負我。」曹操豈不是正因信奉這套價值體系,知道自己必須成為一切的判官?

在拉克斯特看來,這種以事件的「外部性」而非「內部性」去界定行動道德價值的理論,注定沒完沒了、不成體系。

▍四、敬拜與善(Worship and the Good)

從前面,我們已經發現了「善」至少以三個型態存在。這三個型態需要的不是比較,而是統合。

基督徒的真實「敬拜」,便是這三種善的合一行動:

  1. 承認並發覺已經被創造成就的善(對形上與自然中存在的善的被動客觀認識)- the locution of worship
  2. 加入並以實踐表現這樣的善(在美學藝術行動中對道德意識中應對的善積極主觀的認識)- the illocution of worship
  3. 將理想中的善以後續的行為成就(在主客觀認識的基礎上迎向盼望的作為)。- the perlocution of worship

我們在〈詩篇〉27:1-3 所示範的敬拜中,同步見證這三個元素:

27:1 耶和華是我的亮光、是我的拯救.我還怕誰呢.
27:2 耶和華是我性命的保障.〔保障或作力量〕我還懼誰呢。
27:3 那作惡的、就是我的仇敵、前來喫我肉的時候、就絆跌仆倒。

  1. 主是耶和華是我的亮光、我的拯救、我的性命保障。(既成的過去
  2. 我便壯膽。我何足懼?(現在的轉變
  3. 敵人縱然驕矜前來攻擊,但他們必倒在我前。我將戰勝他們。(將來的得勝

在此,我們發現西方倫理思想的危機,事實上是敬拜神學於倫理哲學中的消失;而真正的全人倫理學恢復,則是敬拜的恢復。不是敬拜自然、不是敬拜人類、不是敬拜一種觀念,而是敬拜那生命的主——祂昔在、今在、以後永在。

(第一場講座)

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生活神學小品 (Chinese) Personal Spiritual Uncategorized

[靈命省思] 他偷不走 你心底的平安光芒

【他偷不走 你心底的平安光芒】

Thy word is a lamp unto my feet, and a light unto my path (Psalm 119:105).

 

大約10個月前,在台北通勤換成了響應環保的電單車,也促成家裡把原來給我開的歐洲小鋼砲轎車捐給慈善機構,因為家裡這樣是徹底用不到兩台汽車了。

電單車速的一個特色,是對沿途有更貼近的路況觀察可以反應。諸如就地停下陪伴老人過馬路,或是挪走掉在地上對汽機車造成交通障礙危險的安全帽之類,是我一向瀟灑的都會行俠自然風。

不過要說最習慣做的,還是幫忙拔下路邊車主遺忘的摩托車鑰匙。從那時起算到現在,我已幫拔過三次。最近一次是禮拜一客座參加一友好單位春酒聚會的時候。我打算停巷內位置的隔壁,一整串未拔的鑰匙留在摩托車龍頭上。這台白色摩托車龍頭下手套箱看起來藏不住那麼大串的鑰匙,於是我順手把它們塞入他車墊下扣著的安全帽內盔中。

我以為如此日行一善,應該不會遭被人偷鑰匙一類的厄事,偏偏佛教的陰德善報定理是如此不管用。
──晚上回家騎著電單車要開燈時,車桿上照明用的LED燈就給人順手牽羊了!

半年來,我的車身改裝部品被偷拆過兩次。第一次是個大陸淘寶買的水壺掛。被偷時我是有點生氣,但因為它比較顯眼、車子又在外擺上了幾天,那才值個不到100元台幣的東西,你要就給你唄。

可這次LED小燈被偷,我是真的火了。第一時間OS:「台灣的某些人是神經病嗎?」這個LED同樣我也只買100多塊,你賺不到什麼,卻影響了別人夜視行車安全。

我已經兩度拴在車上的部品被偷,到底是什麼樣的人要一直做這種事?

夜騎回家路上,經過中正運動中心人行道前,突然一個閃閃的LED燈光源切過我右前側。我於是停在了那發這光的自行車旁邊。

按它一下,閃光變常駐光。再按一下,燈就關了。居然這麼巧,跟我失去的一樣是三段開關的自行車LED燈,只不過這個燈的光線強度、製造品質,都比我剛丟掉的那個好多了。

我突然想起有個西方神話寓言,是關於樵夫掉了金斧頭還是銀斧頭的。他說都不是;是掉了鐵斧頭。神讚揚他誠實,就把金斧頭、銀斧頭都賜給了他。

於是我又看了一下運動中心前自行車上那個豪華LED燈,決定再按它一下。它開始閃,就像一開始我經過它時一樣。我拍了張照。然後再按兩下,燈滅了。從此它不會繼續招順手牽羊的人注目、或是一直電力耗盡,影響車主回來騎乘時的夜視安全。

自己之這麼做,就像這幾個月來一直幫摩托車拔鑰匙的動作一般,是我一向瀟灑的都會行俠自然風。

──儘管,我剛被偷了燈,也沒有因此就得到了鑲金或鑲銀的LED燈;但當自己沒有把那個豪華LED燈的一眨一眨,作為「拔走我,讓你有光可以指引你平安回家吧!」的挑逗信號時,我忽然發現,
那閃閃發光指引我回家的,
乃是心底的那份人性良知與內在平安。
正如詩人有話說:

你的話是我腳前的燈,是我路上的光。 (詩篇 119:105)

這份光芒、這份平安,是誰也偷不走的。

Jpeg

Catégories
Health and wellness

[文摘] 安全感、愛的對象和能力

Source Link: https://www.ptt.cc/bbs/WomenTalk/M.1426664977.A.A63.html (主要引用來源)

Harville Handrix在《相愛一生》中提出,兩個人會互相吸引,最重要的的條件是什麼?是認為對方能夠滿足我心中的那些渴望。什麼渴望?讓我們先試著想像一個畫面:我們身上背著成長過程中的種種不滿足與缺憾而長大,而那些不滿足與缺憾就像一個一個的洞,我們帶著這些洞活著。

當我們看見一個人,一個我認為可以幫助我填補這些洞的人時,我們會很容易被他/她們所吸引。而由於那些洞通常來自於幼年時期需求的不被滿足,所以我們很容易把對方跟照顧者混淆在一起。

我們幼年都會經歷過一段成長必然伴隨著的傷痛與缺口,那些最原始的傷痛(來自原生家庭的),每個人都不太相同。有的人是缺乏關愛,因而導致對他人有強烈依附的需求,不過也有同樣缺乏關愛,但表現得社交畏懼或退縮等情形。

我們進入一段關係時,可能是無意識(unconscious)因為某些內在驅動力的驅使,通常不會考慮到太多原因,而多半是某些美麗的想像:「啊!這個人能夠滿足我什麼什麼」。

而除了內在需求被滿足的需要以外,我們對一段關係也有其他的基本需求在:我在這段關係中,能夠有充分表達自己想法、情緒的空間,能夠容許自己好與壞的兩面性,能夠更加地被認識,以及更認識自己的對象。

總的來說,當我們確定「跟這個人在一起時,我能有足夠的空間表現我自己、提出要求時,我覺得我是安全的」,也就是安全感被建立起來後,我們會很自然地想要變得更好,不只為自己,更多的是為對方。

不過值得注意的是,內在無意識、屬於缺憾滿足的「照顧需求」,與有意識的、關乎成年後人格發展的「安全感需求」;與「愛的對象」和「愛的能力」兩者都有關係。

關係中的安全感要被建立,也是在先有「我想為對方改變」這個意願出現的情況下,才更可能改善一段關係。這個想改變的意願,是一種「愛的能力」,與建立一段安全的關係,就像是螺旋梯一樣,相輔相成的。
但精神分析社會學者Erich Fromm注意到,「愛的對象」之選擇,在20世紀發生了巨大的變化…

人們之所以抱著愛無須學習的態度,還有另一個前提,那就是人們認為愛的問題是對象的問題,而不是能力的問題。人們以為去愛是簡單的,尋找一個正確的對象,讓我們去愛或被愛卻是困難的…

人們廣泛的在尋求浪漫式的愛情,把愛情當作是個人性的、過後才可能導致婚姻的自由觀念,必然大大加強了愛之對象的重要性,而使得愛的能力在相形之下被人忽略。

與這因素密切相關的,還有當代文化中另一個特色:

當代整個文化都奠基在購買慾上,奠基在交易互惠的觀念上。現代人的快樂在於觀看店鋪櫥窗時的驚喜,在於能買便買的購買行為所產生的興奮之中。他/她看人也用類似的眼光,對於男人來說,一個具有吸引力的女孩子,是他所要追求的獎品,對女人來說,一個具有吸引力的男人也是如此。「有吸引力」,意思就是一份漂亮的品質包裝,裡面所包裝的,是一些通俗的、在人格市場上被人們所求購的東西。

(The Art of Loving, 1956)

Catégories
Theology transforming culture

[文摘] Stanley Hauerwas on Alasdair MacIntyre: « Secularly » post-liberal

Source Link: THE VIRTUES OF ALASDAIR MACINTYRE by Stanley Hauerwas (2007. 10)
On MacIntyre as anti-techno-bureaucratic postliberal
The constructive character of MacIntyre’s work is apparent in his understanding of the philosophical task. A philosopher, he insists, should try to express the concepts embedded in the practices of our lives in order to help us live morally worthy lives. The professionalization of philosophy into a technical field”what might be called the academic captivity of philosophy”reflects (and serves to legitimate) the compartmentalization of the advanced capitalistic social orders that produce our culture of experts, those strange creatures of authority in modernity.
Conservatives and liberals, [however], both try to employ the power of the modern state to support their positions in a manner alien to MacIntyre’s understanding of the social practices necessary for the common good.
 
On MacIntyre’s virtue ethics as universal (non-sectarian) and theologically « non-confessional »
Those who fear MacIntyre’s position might commit him to some form of confessional theological position should be comforted by his adamant declaration that his metaphysical position, his account of natural law, as well as his understanding of practical reason and the virtues are secular. By secular I take him to mean that his argument that some overall good is necessary for our actions to be intelligible does not entail any theological convictions that are not available to anyone.
Aristotle provided MacIntyre with an account of why our actions require a conception of an end as well as the social and political conditions necessary to sustain a life formed by the virtues constitutive of that end that is simply lacking in modern moral practice and theory.
The “plain person” is the character MacIntyre has identified to display the unavoidability of the virtues. Plain persons are those characterized by everyday practices such as sustaining families, schools, and local forms of political community. They engage in trades and professions that have required them to learn skills constitutive of a craft. Such people are the readers he hopes his books may reach. Grounded as they are in concrete practices necessary to sustain a common life, they acquire the virtues that make them capable of recognizing the principles of natural law and why those principles call into question the legitimating modes of modernity.
On MacIntyre as « post-modern » and post-liberal
General dismissals of MacIntyre too often rest on a fundamental failure to understand the interconnected character of his work. His criticisms of modernity are often thought to reflect a nostalgic and unjustified preference for the Middle Ages.
[But] MacIntyre’s critique of modernity is hardly wholesale rejection. Ethics and Politics ends with a fascinating defense of the virtue of toleration and free speech. From MacIntyre’s perspective, the presumption that one might be capable of standing somewhere to reject modernity is the kind of peculiarly modern attitude his work is meant to disabuse. MacIntyre, moreover, understands that there is no past to which we might return. He notes that we are all “inescapably inhabitants of advanced modernity, bearing its social and cultural marks.” Accordingly he acknowledges that his understanding of the tradition of the virtues and the consequences for modernity of the rejection of that tradition is one that is possible only on this side of modernity.

Alasdair MacIntyre (From Wikimedia)

Catégories
Theology transforming culture

[文摘] What Reason Can Know and What Government Should Legislate: A Rejoinder to Arkes by Robert T. Miller

Source Link: http://www.thepublicdiscourse.com/2014/08/13732/

 

Robert T. Miller, an eminent Aristotelian-Thomist law scholar, bring a well-reasoned postliberal public theology to the table of Hobby Lobby.

the argument goes as this:

1. Some people have complained that the judges in the Hobby Lobby case have ‘put the main and decisive accent on the « theology » of the litigants or the « sincerity » of their « beliefs », instead of using a discipline of reason for legal guidance on the deliberation of moral matters.

2. The loophole created, as these people would argue, is that « when someone believe something with sincerity, it is better that thing is not forbidden by law. »

(Nicholas Wolterstorff and some Neuhausians would see there is some intrinsic good in such a « dense libertarian » liberal-democratic civil society, though, vis-a-vis Rawlsians.)
3. But Miller has helped us in the discussion by rightly distinguishing the « Abstract Reason » and « the Reasoning of Particular Individuals. » He argues that

conferring on public officials a general power to inquire into moral or religious truths is dangerous because such people are no better than anyone else at sorting out true beliefs from false ones and they are just as likely as everyone else to think that ideas different from their own are unreasonable or perverse.

This does not mean that sound reason does not exist or that truth is unattainable. But truth will not side with a certain group of deliberative people all the time, and for this reason we have to do something to prevent a certain group of people from always having the final say on matters of truth.

An analogy will help. The natural sciences are the work of reason, and over the last few centuries human beings have made astonishing advances in understanding the natural world. On the basis of this success, no one doubts that human reason can discover scientific truths. But a person would have to be daft to support, on this basis, setting up a committee of eminent scientists with the power to decide, in a way binding on other people, which scientific propositions are true and which are false. The reasons are obvious: even professional scientists, when dealing with purely scientific questions, are subject to common human failings, including pride, envy, and all manner of prejudices, which can readily lead them into error. The history of science is replete with such examples, such as the early twentieth-century physicists who resisted the big bang theory because of its perceived theistic implications.

If this is true of natural science, how much truer is it of morality and religion, where the inquirer’s biases and self-interest will have much greater influence on his reasoning? We all know people (often ourselves) who have adjusted their moral beliefs when they have become inconvenient. We all know people (often ourselves) who hold certain moral views for no better reason than that we learned them from our parents. For such reasons, and because of the inherent difficulty of many moral and religious questions, there is scant basis to think that any particular person is likely to reach correct results on a given question, even when there is a unique, rationally determinable answer to the question. This is why there is so much disagreement on normative questions, even among intelligent and informed people of good will.

4. In devicing governmental institutions, therefore, it’s critically important

  • to make it difficult to enact laws without very broad support (broad support reduces the chance of error),
  • to allow errors to be corrected relatively easily
  • to have a system of checks and balances that requires approval by different officials answerable to people in different ways before effecting laws

5. The Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA), under which Hobby Lobby was decided, is part of such a system in that it provides additional protection for religious freedom.

Under our [U.S.] Constitution, enacting a federal law requires the assent of both houses of Congress and the concurrence of the president (subject to Congress’s overruling a presidential veto by a two-thirds vote of both houses). This system by itself affords real protection to minorities whose religious practices may be restricted by legislation: they have the opportunity to participate in the political process at various points to affect the legislation. Beyond that, however, RFRA provides that, if a federal law substantially burdens a person’s exercise of his religion, the government must convince a court that applying the burden to the plaintiff furthers a compelling governmental interest by the least restrictive means available. This is a protection of religious freedom over and above the protections available to minorities in the ordinary legislative process.

The keywords are: « convince », « compelling governmental interest », and « least restrictive means available. »

In the procedure, people adversely affected by the law will be allowed at least two chances of hearing. The first one is at the legislative stage before the proposed law has been finally signed by the president. This is what is usually called ‘lobbying.’ The second one is at the juridical stage- thanks to RFRA, when the judges will review if such a a federal law that burdens a person’s exercise of his religion could be proven to furthers a substantive governmental interest by the least restrictive means available.

6. Miller’s sophisticated argument lies right between his statements that

  • judges are not good at determining moral and religious truths
  • it is good that judges are entitled [by RAFA] to determine whether a law furthers a compelling governmental interest by the least restrictive means on individual religious freedom

For to have judges to determine what « substantive interest » and « least restrictive means available » are is not the same to empower them to determine « moral and religious truths », namely, whether a law is « justified or unjustified » , good or bad, right or wrong, wise or foolish.

This does not mean that when evaluating « interest » and « means of restriction » the judges will never touch moral issues and make moral judgments, but with these guidelines, the institutional utterance of forceful words will tend to be much more regulated and accountable. The goal is exactly to cabin the judges’ discretion in ways that will tend to produce the best reasonable results on average.

7. « There are some immoral actions that it would be immoral to make illegal. » This is Miller’s central contention, and it is also one of the central contention of postliberal public theology. As the Aristotelian-Thomist postliberal McIntyre’s virtue ethics would tell us, « To Become Virtuous, One Must Choose Good Actions Freely. »

Part of becoming virtuous, part of becoming a good human being, is identifying and choosing good actions for oneself. If one’s neighbors, or the state, or even God himself were always at hand to point the way and then coerce a man into doing good and avoiding evil, virtue would become impossible: a man might always choose good actions, but he would not become a virtuous man.

Surely there are gravely immoral conduct causing grievous harm to others that on morally grounds should be legally restricted (such as murdering), but we do not for morally permissible reasons force the rich people to give a fraction of their wealth to the poor, or to restrict the right to marriage to couples who demonstratively to have mature quality of love.

« The classic tradition has made room for ‘prudence’—for not applying the principles of right in their stringency to every case” because sometimes “it’s necessary for statesmen to make an accommodation with evil for the sake of compressing it, as the American founders did with slavery. »

This ‘prudence’, or φρόνησις in the original Greek language, is what we should soundly bite and reflect upon.