Mu-tien Chiou @Chicago (blogging in 中文, English, and Français)

Articles tagués ‘Postliberal’

[文摘] David Ford on Modern Theology

In this 25min video interview, Oxford Theologian David Ford addresses modern theology with two insightful analytical overviews: "approaches" and "issues".

First, in terms of the spectrum of theological prolegomena, Ford thinks there are five discernible types:

  1. Assimilate Theology into Secular Philosophy: Immanuel Kant
  2. Construct Theology with Secular Philosophy, and subordinate theological data that are incompatible with philosophy: Rudolt Bultmann
  3. Correlate Theology with Secular Philosophy in a dialogical manner, and no one is constantly above the other: Paul Tillich & Friedrich Schleiermarcher
  4. Construct Theology in dialogue with Secular Philosophy, and reject philosophical data that are fundamentally incompatible with philosophy: Karl Barth, Hans Frei
  5. Preserve Traditional Theology and criticize philosophical data that are incompatible with philosophy: Carl Henry

Then, there are topics and problematics characteristic of "modern theologies"; some of them especially have developed into sprouting fields of what we call 21st century theological studies:

  1. Theological Ethics: gender issues, technological issues, etc.
  2. Theology of Spirituality: Theological Wisdom
  3. Theological Politics:
  4. Theology of Science: as the world comes of age, educated modern generation needs a sensible faith and viable worldview.
  5. Theology of Religion (interfaith theology): Confrontational stance was replaced by conversational attitude through 20th century ecumenical movement. A viable theology in the era of globalization needs to give no-nonsense account of other faiths.

[文摘] 從 Peter Drucker 到後自由公共神學

就心理層面來看,杜斯妥也夫斯基的大審判官說得當然沒有錯(Psychologically, the Grand Inquisitor of Dostoevsky‘s legend was certainly right when…),他只是想對抗耶穌,證明人類寧可當一個快樂的奴隸,也不願當一個負責的自由人。

自由的唯一基礎是基督教對人性本質的概念: 人是不完美的,脆弱的,是罪人,也是終歸於塵土的塵土。 雖然 神依照自己的形象造人,人卻必須為自己的行為負責。

唯有認為人類在基本上是不完美的,不恆久的,在哲學層面上自由才是自然且必須的。

而且唯有認為,儘管人類是不完美且不恆久的,人類基本上也必須要對自己的行為和決定負責,這樣的話,在政治層面上才可能出現自由,也才有必要獲得自由。

任何主張人類完美的哲學都否定自由,任何放棄道德責任的哲學也否定自由。…

現代許多人都願意承認,沒有人能聲稱自己擁有絕對真理或絕對理性。 然而他們之所以承認,並不是基於人的不完美,而是因為「絕對」並不存在。他們不懷疑人的完美,懷疑的是上帝存在與否。 因此他們認為做任何決定不必負任何道德責任。

- Peter Drucker 《工業人的未來》,第六章「自由社會與自由政府」(The future of industrial man: a conservative approach, p.150)

稍微梳理一下:

  1. 倫理學的基本原則:人只需要為自主的決定負道德責任。(人無法也無須為被迫或不自主做出的行為負責。)
  2. 道德責任的前設概念,在於人的行動與意志並不完美。(「責任」是與「風險」相對的概念。如果能保證有完美的結果,而不會有任何風險,責任就是多餘且不必要的概念。)
  3. 故保障「自由」,才能為「個人當責」(individual accountability)和人的「欠善」(virtuelessness)處境提供合法性交代。

因此從神學上看,「自由」當是「後設」的,是為「後自由神學」(post-liberal theology)*

當代自由社會的癥結,在於把「自由」當成「前設」,將其神格化(偶像化)並也扁平化了。

 

* 以後設的自由看待為承擔責任的積極自由、是面向「自由」之源頭的積極回應。從聖經〈創世紀〉的啟示,人類從受造的一刻擁有神完美的形象,並被賦以對「大自然」擁有絕對的治權。記得 Drucker 所說:完美的人有權利和義務進行絕對統治。

創世紀 1:26 神說:「我們要照著我們的形像、按著我們的樣式造人,使他們管理海裡的魚、空中的鳥、地上的牲畜,和全地,並地上所爬的一切昆蟲。」

就伊甸園中的亞當而言,「當責」和「自由」此時都是附隨的多餘概念。因為人完美的意志和神完美的意志當中沒有不一致;人是上帝在世上施行治權的完美代理者。

然而隨後,「控訴者」撒旦在人類的政治棋局中帶入了「風險」。墮落,是人類為了爭取一套獨立於「完美」之外的「自由」而不再完美的過程。如此,聖經中將人類偏離至善的不完美狀態,稱為「罪」。

創世紀 3:4-5 蛇對女人說:「你們不一定死;因為神知道,你們吃的日子眼睛就明亮了,你們便如神能知道善惡。」

 

歷史上低估人類軟弱或輕忽人類罪性的政治思想,無一例外地導致烏托邦的極權主義,因為「完美的人」相信自己絕對正確,一定能完美地統治世界。(按照 Drucker 的说法,這樣的人僅應該被賦權實施絕對的統治,他本人更有道德義務來承擔治的職權。他必須克服萬難實施極權,因為他、也只有他,才知道那條帶領世界通往幸福真理的道路。)

極權主義的失敗下場,使更多人相信民主的多數決是人類社會的唯一出路。

問題是,少數服從多數,也可能是一種標榜完美的民粹專制。假如信仰沒有改變,那麼「完美的一群人」與「完美的個人」在本質上的政治理念並沒有什麼不同。「多數暴力者」(如同某專制的政黨)往往堅信他們正為著組成完美的社會做出一個絕對正確的決定:「也只有我們,才知道那條帶領世界通往幸福真理的道路。」

問題不在於是一個人還是多個人接觸到或掌握到了權力;「完美」與「驕傲」,才是自由精神的絕對敵人。

也因此,當我們說多數決的民主政府最有可能成為有責任感的自由政府,關鍵並不在於人數所帶來的「益智」(集思廣益)或「抑制」(分權制衡)效果。

民主的核心價值乃是建基於其面對「至高」(sovereignty)時的謹慎與謙卑,從而使人能在責任的伴隨中得到自由與解放。

唯有讓公眾一同當責和承受彼此的軟弱與不完美,人類才更有機會將自身從完美政治聯邦的執念中釋放出來,並對上帝的永恆國度與審判產生真實的盼望和敬畏。

在後現代處境下,這將是道德公民能夠組成(後)自由社會的充分條件。

[文摘] "The Future of Theological Ethics", Studies in Christian Ethics, May 2012; 25 (2)

Source: http://sce.sagepub.com/content/current

This issue of SCE journal has some excellent contributions. See Below with my comments.  這期基督教倫理學期刊(2012年五月號)太讚了,內容幾乎全是圍繞著當前的劍橋後自由學派展開,值得導介一番。

Christian Public Reasoning in the United Kingdom: Apologetic, Casuistical, and Rhetorically Discriminate

  1. Nigel Biggar, Christ Church, Oxford OX1 1DP, UK Email:nigel.biggar@chch.ox.ac.uk

Abstract

Since the 1960s Christian ethics in Britain has become stronger, more theological, and more Protestant, so that its moral intelligence is now much more fully informed by the full range of theological premises. In the future, however, Christian ethics needs to make up certain recent losses: to re-engage with moral philosophy, in order to rebut the glib dismissal of religious ethics by popularising atheists; to read less philosophy and more history, in order to become plausible to public policy-makers; and to revive the model of interdisciplinary work, in order both to understand the matter which it would interpret morally and to inject Christian analyses and judgements into the bloodstream of public discourse.

  • 對當代英語學界神學思想史和倫理學研究具有先知開創地位的 Biggar 為本期提供了一個宏觀的開場和學術掌故。這是本領域舊雨新知必讀的一篇論文。

Reasoning from out of Particularity: Possibilities for Conversation in Theological Ethics*

  1. Daniel H. Weiss, Faculty of Divinity, University of Cambridge, West Road, Cambridge CB3 9BS, UK Email: dhw27@cam.ac.uk

Abstract

Frequently, theological particularity can hinder attempts at inter-religious conversations in theological ethics, as each tradition’s reasoning is inextricably bound up with core doctrinal elements not shared by other traditions. I argue, however, that elements of particularity can facilitate conversation when emphasis is placed on movements of ethical reasoning between particular statements within each tradition. By examining the classical rabbinic practice of verbal forewarning in capital cases, I show that although the starting point and ending point of an instance of theological reasoning may be ‘exclusivistic’, the relationship between those points can serve as the basis for comparison and dialogue.

  • 寫這篇的 Weiss 就是他家大老 David Ford 的打手。根本論述是 Scriptural reasoning 的那一套而沒有突破。這篇論文的貢獻在於掃盲,而對英倫系統的後自由神學的進展沒有幫助。

Evolutionary Theory and Theological Ethics

  1. John Hare, Yale Divinity School, 409 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA Email: john.hare@yale.edu

Abstract

This paper is about the problematic interface between evolutionary scientists’ talk about ethics and current work in philosophy and theology. The paper proceeds by taking four main figures from four different disciplines. The four disciplines are neurophysiology, cognitive psychology, primatology and game theory, and the four figures are Joshua Greene, Mark Hauser, Frans de Waal and Ken Binmore. The paper relates the views of each of these figures to recent work in philosophical and theological ethics.

  • Hare 提供的是當前很重要的一塊拼圖,意即從哲學上主流的無神論自然哲學系統(偏唯物論的實用主義)來協調神學倫理學的地位。畢竟沒有這一塊,神學就不可能在哲學邏輯上完全沿展開而成為在學術和社會上都站得住腳的公共神學,而難免只是信徒自己抱殘守缺的吶喊。

Response to John Hare

  1. Sarah Coakley, Norris-Hulse Professor of Divinity, Faculty of Divinity, University of Cambridge, West Road, Cambridge, CB3 9BS, UK Email: sc545@cam.ac.uk

Abstract

John Hare’s paper successfully exposes philosophical naïvéties and reductive pretensions in the evolutionary research he surveys. But he fails to clarify how ‘God’, on a view such as Dominic Johnson’s, could not be seen merely as a dispensable projection of ‘primitive’ societies, and thus how his own continuing commitment to a Kantian ethic might need to be bolstered by a concomitant form of ‘natural theology’ attentive to evolutionary dynamics.

  • 目前在公共神學上,將哲學沿展到極限的成果,將能得到一種有神論,也就是Kant 自然神論、實踐理性,和神導進化論的三點一線。可是Coakley 在這指出,這個工程在純哲學上還做得不到位(至少在Hare所整理出的四大論述中是如此)。因著 Coakley 本於正統基督教神學的立場,她會認為純哲學系統下來為神學的公共性制訂疆界,會仍無法脫離當初自由神學Feuerbach把「神學」搞成「人學」的困境。

The Future of Theological Ethics

  1. Raymond Geuss, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Cambridge, Sidgwick Avenue, Cambridge CE3 9DA, UK.

Abstract

The traditional discipline of apologetics contained an important insight about the necessity for Christians to address non-Christians about their practices and beliefs; however, in the modern world apologetics needs to be refocused to include not just non-Christians who have specific theoretical objections of Christianity, but also the large number of those who are simply indifferent to religious issues.

  • Geuss 一直是我極為欣賞的哲學家,屬於當前英語學界少數極為精通歐陸脈絡的一流學者。他在這非常精闢地指出,向來走在神學倫理學之間的護教學也必須跟著轉型,它不能光只跟那些反對宗教的人對話(也就是 negative apologetics,防禦性的「消極護教學」),更需要在這個時代使那些根本就不關心宗教的人正視宗教(上帝)存在的價值和必要性(也就是 positive apologetics,進攻性的「積極護教學」)。由他來說出這句話,比 Alvin Plantinga 還更為鏗鏘有力。

The Future of Theological Ethics

  1. Oliver O’Donovan, New College, Edinburgh EH1 2LX, UK Email:oliver.odonovan@ed.ac.uk

Abstract

Ethics is distinguished as a field of study within the realm of organised knowledge which interprets moral experience. Christian ethics assumes this interpretation into the hermeneutic framework of Christian theology in relation to a hope for the renewal and recovery of human agency. Its theme is moral thinking in general, which it understands within the framework of faith. It is dependent on philosophical ethics, but presumes and aims at more. The concepts handled by theological ethics include analytic categories coined to describe the operations of moral thought itself, concepts that name qualities and performances of universal importance, and concepts belonging both to dogmatics and ethics, e.g. ‘sin’. It is concerned to describe the ‘architecture’ of life in the Spirit: World, the framework of meaning, Self, the agent, Time, the immediate future open to action. It resists pressure for theoretical economy in favour of unipolar theories. Its tasks include critical engagement with issues of policy or practice in wider discussion, engagement with particular moral dilemmas, the exploration of special fields, such as bioethics, marriage, economics, critical conceptual interaction with philosophy, interaction with biblical exegesis, exposition of texts from the tradition of theological ethics, and comparative intertraditional enquiry.

  • 屬於保守脈絡的 O’Donovan 這篇沒有什麼洞見,只是掃盲。

A Metaphysical Kant: A Theological Lingua Franca?

  1. Christopher Insole, Department of Theology and Religion, University of Durham, Abbey House, Palace Green, Durham DH1 3RS, UK Email:christopher.insole@durham.ac.uk

Abstract

I track a strand of intellectualist theology, running from Kant’s pre-critical into his critical work, whereby the divine will is constrained in its creative activity by the divine understanding. I suggest that Kant’s intellectualist theology continues to do important work in his mature conception of transcendental idealism, transcendental freedom and autonomy. I consider briefly how this might impact upon theological ethics, particularly in relation to the conflict between Kantian secularists and religious believers. I conclude by asking whether Kant’s intellectualist theology—with its Platonic strands—opens up possibilities for inter-faith dialogue.

  • 這是一個目前卡住英倫系統的後自由神學極為關鍵的課題,也就是「Kant 自然神學究竟需要做出什麼幅度的修正,才有可能成為(跨宗教)公共神學的基礎」。這篇文章大致來說,Insole 明顯對 Kant 系統有所偏袒,太信心也太樂觀了。我認為可以指出的包含三個修改議程:第一點,是從(Kant)超驗唯心論到(Barth, Merleau-Ponty, Wittgenstein)批判實在論的距離。第二點是把上帝當成義務論基礎的「上帝身份」問題。第三點是把上帝當成義務論基礎的「義務論」內容問題。

The Future of Theological Ethics: Response to Christopher Insole

  1. Robert Gibbs, Department of Philosophy, University of Toronto, 170 St George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5R 2M8, Canada Email: robert.gibbs@utoronto.ca

Abstract

I shift the focus from questions of rational theology to questions of law and interrogate the nature of ethics from the perspective of Jewish philosophy. The key critical issues for criticising Kant’s philosophy will be the separation of ethics and law and the reduction of the sollen of morality to a kind of necessity. Nonetheless, I suggest that Jewish thinkers will follow Kant in thinking about God first from the perspective of practical philosophy.

  • Gibbs 的回應集中在我前面所提出的義務論問題。直接以 Kant 為公共神學基礎的後果,將產生主體「能動性」和「意志」被「單元化」的問題:亦即,倫理被教條/律法化,人類服從上帝的「倫理行動」機器人服從主人命令的機械行為、「實踐理性」被化約為如同計算機科學一樣的生冷數學公式。

Concluding Remarks

  1. Christopher Insole, Department of Theology and Religion, University of Durham, Abbey House, Palace Green, Durham DH1 3RS, UK Eamil:christopher.insole@durham.ac.uk

Abstract

I suggest some ways in which a certain type of ‘post-foundationalism’ has had a deleterious effect in theological ethics. Much ‘post-foundationalism’ is in truth still foundationalism, albeit less reflective and more permissive, leading to a balkanised plethora of foundationalist systems. Although Wittgenstein is critical of foundationalism, it is by applying Wittgensteinian insights that we are able to avoid some of the reductive and unipolar thinking that has characterised some recent theological discussion.

  • Insole 這篇也是必讀的。不少走 Barth、Lindbeck 路線的後自由教會和神學院都走向了一種「非基礎主義」的真理觀。如果站在教會合一的大公基礎上,那這表面上是沒問題的。但如果再加入與猶太教、伊斯蘭教,到佛教或無神論之間不同親近度的關係,就會明顯發現原先「非基礎主義」提供的層次仍然遠遠不夠厚實和細膩(也就是仍有化約主義的毛病)。因而從歐陸批判理論的角度看這裡必須輔以 Habermas,而從分析哲學而言所需要的解鈴人正是 Wittgenstein。Insole 正是從 Wittgenstein的脈絡出發,把批判實在論這塊拼圖補上。
  • 只是個人未必會完全同意 Insole 的結論:未免基督救恩的獨特性不再,我仍然強調「基礎主義」(post-foundationalism)是比「新基礎主義」(neo-foundationalism)更值得在神學上堅持的立場。

Book Review: The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth

edition price bookseller updated
The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth Paperback
published by Cambridge University Press (2000)

0521585600 • 9780521585606
Paperback, 332 pages
Published October 5th 2000 by Cambridge University Press

 

To me, this book is quite an achievement and enjoyable to read.

But beginners (and non-professionals) may need some professional guidance to grapple with its advanced content.

For, on the one hand, it assumes basic acquaintanceship with Barth’s work per se and some formal training in the field of systematic theology.
And on the other, the contributors, though all sympathetic to Barth, hold some different perspectives in their approaches.

Painting with a broad stroke, there are four major voices in this book: postliberal, radical orthodox, neo-reformed, and the German tradition.

Personally, I am happy to see that Webster (the most influential Barth scholar in UK) drawing together these Barth interpreters from diverging school of thoughts. But you probably won’t be able to tell and slide through their differences and synthesize their views.)

I recommend ch.1, 10, 14, 15, 18 of this book for beginners that have not completed any single volume of CD themselves. They are accessible and written in good styles.

As for ch.2-9, 11-3, which each takes an aspect of Barth doctrine of theological prolegomena, revelation, Scripture, Trinity, Election, Creation, Christology, Soteriology, Pneumatology, liturgy, and ethics, you will need to be able to contrast Barth against the backdrop of the traditional (evangelical) and liberal understanding of these topics in order to appreciate what Barth is doing. The contributors here do not necessarily help you do this. This is not a problem to me, and some chapters really helped me to set Barth’s CD in order.
But it should be said that the section in this companion is not for any novice who wants to read Barth as their first and primary tutor about how to talk about God systematically.

Apparently, the most seminal and controversial piece in this companion is ch.6 ‘Grace and Being’ by Bruce McCormack, which sparkled a fierce debate over a decade since its publication (on the theological ontology of God’s immanence, aseity, and election).
His chapter is not only important but also very inspirational to read, especially for what is now known as ‘actualistic ontology’ in not just theological but philosophical circles as well.

Personally, I found ch.17 ‘Barth, modernity, postmodernity’ by Graham Ward a very wise inclusion in this companion. For up until now, the solution and inspiration Barth offers for overcoming the epistemological and ethical plight in the secular world are underappreciated by theologians unfamiliar with the larger picture of contemporary critical thinking.
And this is one of the reasons why conservative theology has lost its mic to speak publicly while liberal theology has lost its vowels to speak loudly.

Graham Ward is one among those (along with Stanley Hauerwas, Joseph Magina, Paul Dafydd Jones, Steven Long, Nicholas Adams) who are insightful and capable of bringing out the bearings of Barth’s theology unto this world which has never thought they want or need to think about theology.

In my opinion, these two chapters are for the more ‘advanced’, and they are also the most rewarding chapters to read.
All in all, this book is highly recommended.

[文摘] 基督徒與公民參與--作主門徒的政治

(前言:這篇文章的諸多部分我沒有出力撰寫,只是拼貼與彙整兩篇這個主題的文章,並修正與調和其中過猶不及的觀點,並加上結論。文末附連結。)

有一位學者說:「新約中很少有一句話像是羅13:2,被大大地誤用。」人誤用這句話(所以抗拒掌權的,就是抗拒神的命,抗拒的必自取刑罰),被要求對集權政府絕對服從。從這裡的上下文及使徒著作的大範圍來看,政府要求人服從的限度,只在神所託付它的目的之內;若它要求唯有神才配得的尊榮,我們不單可以抗拒,而且必須抗拒。

正因為相信最高主權是神,我們也才能理解,為什麼彼得、約翰在面對猶太公會不准奉耶穌的名講論教訓人時,會用強硬的態度說:「聽從你們、不聽從神,這在神面前合理不合理,你們自己酌量吧。我們所看見所聽見的,不能不說。」(徒4:19~20)但是當有人來逮捕時,卻是束手就擒。

若問基督徒是否可以參政,舊約聖經似乎已假定,上帝的子民和先知已經參了政,不存在可以不可以的問題。

在舊約聖經中,王權開始於撒母耳時代。大概在主前11世紀,由於民眾強烈要求,先知撒母耳在壓力下封立掃羅為王。撒母耳當時警告以色列民說:「要君王來統治你們,可能須付出慘痛的代價。」(撒上8:11-18)
在這之前的士師時代,以色列族沒有一個中央集權政府,經濟和軍事力量當然無法與周邊國家相比,但好處是不必承擔中央政府的龐大開支,並且不受制於單一集團。只是,王權一旦建立,人民不但失去相當大部分的自身權力,並且要負擔種種苛捐、雜稅、徵兵、徵糧。因此,撒母耳認為有了國王之後,百姓就要受苦,他除了陳明君王必然斂稅和徵地外,並嚴厲地警告說:「你們也必作他的奴僕。」雖然如此,以色列民還是說:「我們定要一個王治理我們!」(撒上8:19)

果然,掃羅登基做王,立即就實行斂稅、徵兵、徵糧,這原是維持中央政權最起碼的要求。至所羅門王時代,王室大興土木,建造豪華宮殿,揮霍無度,貪婪淫亂,人民的負擔就大大加重了,全國怨聲載道。所羅門王的兒子接位後,王室更加敗壞,橫徵暴斂,百姓逼急了造反,結果國家一分為二。

基於這段歷史,舊約聖經對於王權,一直採取保留態度,認為權力集中的君王定會作惡,不是理想的政治制度。雖然舊約承認君王是上帝的僕人,但強調君王必須對上帝負責,不得剛愎自用,誤國傷民。
故此,從政治制度而言,先知的興起,是對王權的一種監督。先知亦是上帝的僕人,有獨特的身份及任務,使他們可以站在政權之外,甚至站在政權之上,用超乎政權本身的標準,以上帝的話對君王政治進行批判。
以色列先知傳統並非世襲,亦不是固定的組織。先知由上帝在民間隨時選召,替人民說話;不單指斥當時的社會敗壞風氣,亦敢直言王室的不是,彈劾腐吏苛政。例如先知拿單就曾面斥大衛王奪人妻子,蓄謀害命;又如先知米該亞在亞哈王面前「不說吉話單說凶言」(王上22:18)。結果,米該亞被囚,後來怎樣,我們不知道,大概是死在獄中了。後來,亞哈王果然戰敗了,死在戰場,應驗了先知的凶言。不說奉承的假話,只說真話,為真理犧牲;這就是偉大的古以色列先知傳統。先知有監察、審視、批判王權的責任,在政權之外另有根據(耶和華的話)。這種對王權進行監督及批判的概念和做法,乃是民主意識的基礎,對後世思潮影響深遠。

在宗教改革時期,馬丁路德(Martin Luther)跟隨新約的教訓,認為人應當順服政府,就算是壞的政府亦應當順服;所謂「該撒的物歸該撒,上帝的物歸上帝」,但他認定良心只能屬於上帝。路德指出,屬靈及屬世的兩個國度,各有範圍;雖然各自獨立,卻可彼此合作。然而路德的「兩國論」,一不能防止君王濫用權力,二不能主動參與社會,它充其量只能保障某種程度的宗教獨立,因此對現代民主影響甚微。如果君王在地上胡作非為,屬靈或屬天國的教會不能奈其何,充其極只是作良心上的反抗而已。

基督教積極的監管政權、改革政府,及推動民主的神學思想,要等到長老宗先驅約翰加爾文 (John Calvin)之後才有一點開端。加爾文好像保羅和路德一樣,認為政府權力在於維持世上秩序及社會安定,並且懲罰犯法的人,主持公道;但基督徒卻有責任去督促、指導、甚至改革政府,使政府在行使權力的時候要合乎上帝的旨意,使上帝旨意要「行在地上如同行在天上」–不單只在宗教生活中實現,並且也伸展到屬世生活、屬世政權當中。加爾文根據這原則去積極改革,不但改革教會,亦改革政府,翻轉了時代歷史。

加爾文在其大作《基督教要義》最後一章「論政府」中說:「很少君王能約束自己,不使其意志與公義及正直相抵觸,又因為他們鮮能深思明辨,在凡事上發現那盡善盡美的。所以由於人類的罪惡和缺陷,使政權操於許多人的手,乃較為穩妥,他們好彼此幫助、規勸。這樣,倘若有人越權,別人就可以監察並約束他的野心。」

加爾文顯然認同舊約先知的傳統,認為權力受監督比不受監督好,好政府應秉行公義,不應濫用權力。

加爾文以民主為必要,乃是基於人性是墮落的,因此,放任自由的政權是絕對危險的。換言之,基督教先驅推崇民主,不是基於少數要服從多數的原則(當然,現代基督教不否定這概念,只是不以它們作為民主的基礎),民主之所以是必要,因為我們相信群體有監督政權的職責,透過監督,希望可以約束墮落的人性,特別是加上權力的墮落人性。

可惜的是,現代西方國家推崇,關懷的好像領袖是否通過所謂一人一票推舉出來,至於民主重要的精神(監督和約束)卻不是很認真看待。無怪乎,落後國家和先進國家,同樣以民主之名濫權的事就屢見不鮮。須知道,選舉只是決定把政權交給誰;真正的民主乃是在選舉之後,選民要對手握政權的人進行有效的監督。基督教並不認為民主是神聖不可侵犯的體制,更不可能是人類最圓滿、最終極的政治制度;民主只是人的制度,人努力的一種嘗試,它是一種監督制度,一種防範措施,其本身當然需要受到監管和不斷檢討,確保有效的發揮其功能。

近代神學家在這方面的詮釋,最具代表性的人物要算美國20世紀神學家尼布爾(Reinhold Niebuhr)。他認為「因為人是由上帝形象做的,所以民主是可能的;但因為人是罪人,所以民主亦是必須的。」前者指人人可以積極負起政治的責任,後者指權力必須加以限制。民主的意思在現代基督教教義方面來看就是這樣。

除了監督和約束外,基督教為現代民主奠下第二支重要的基調是:容忍異己。

17世紀,加爾文派長老會在英國興起。在教會組織內,這班清教徒發揮了加爾文的改革精神。教會有代議制度、選舉制度,並且重視開會程序及討論自由。一切政策都應在議會中公開討論、辯論,大家來解決問題,達成決策。這是現代民主制度的要素。他們這班人與舊約先知不同。先知只是在旁監察或批判力,並不直接行使權力,行使權力是君王責任;加爾文派清教徒則主張參與,以民主方式直接行使權力。

畢竟,先知的職權和影響力是很有限的。先知監察、批判權力不一定有效,並且有時甚至遭受殺身之禍。但以理書中所記載的但以理的三個朋友,不向巴比倫王尼布甲尼撒所造的金像下拜,因此被丟在火窯中。還有但以理在大利烏王下令,不准向王以外的人或神求告時,照樣一日三次開窗禱告與素常一樣,他寧可被扔在獅子坑中也不妥協。因為君王或官長要求的是與神的尊榮與旨意相違背。

但加爾文教派的長老會信徒卻提倡積極參與政治、改革政權,使政府更能符合上帝的旨意。既然地上的君王、總統不該因居高位而不可一世,民主政體下的元首更不該太作威作福,因此理想的民主政府也應該有雅量容忍反對派,並且用憲法法治的方式保障監督政府的言論自由。

今天很多人以為,基督徒不要參與政治,因為「政治很黑」,彷彿只有被動地將公領域的決策與執行全部「外判」(outsource)給技術官僚和行政決策者,才符合聖經中「順服在上掌權者」的教導。但是,克蘭菲爾(C. E. B Cranfield)說,今天的政府與新約時代的政府之間有基本上的差別。在新約時代,政府是獨裁的。統治者是絕對的獨裁者。作為公民的唯一責任是絕對服從政府,繳納政府所定的稅捐(羅13:6-7)。所以用服從、屈服、忍受。民主政體的社會就不一樣,民主社會是一個民有,民享,民治的政府,在民主政體中,基督徒的責任比對獨裁者的服從要更深一層,基督徒與政府的關係是一種「合作的關係」。一方面是服從,被管理,一方面在服從與被管理中,要求得到應得的保護、尊重與權利。

在民主政治中,基督徒當如何盡對國家社會的責任?按照彼得所說,「為主的緣故」基督徒必須「順服人的一切制度」,這就包括民主制度對公民公眾參與的要求。基督徒公民必須參與在政府的決策裡面;他必須參與在他所居住的城市的地方自治中;他必須參與在有關專業的工會行政或是有關的生意、服務、技藝與職業的協會,甚至在必要的時候,要成為先知般作為盡責批判與監督政府的反對派,將上帝的心意陳明。

順服的益處是因為我們盼望掌權者,是能真正履行神的用人(公僕)賞善罰惡的功能(3~4),然而地上沒有完全的掌權者,就像提前2:1~3所說,我們需要為在上執政掌權者代禱,為的是可以敬虔端正、平安無事的度日。只是若基督徒沒有用信仰參與在一切影響國家、政府與社會福利的行政重大決策,在政府的機構與組織中作見證,作鹽作光,我們就沒有盡到基督徒的社會責任和義務,也沒有資格享受自由的權利了。

在第一世紀60年代(57A.D.)寫成的羅馬書,使徒保羅提醒信徒要趁早睡醒,因為得救(身體得贖)比初信的時候更近了,以保羅屬靈的敏銳,往近處看,已經嗅到羅馬皇帝對基督徒的逼迫是越來越厲害了,往不久的將來看,他迫切盼望主能快來。二千年後的今日,神的國度不是更近了嗎?

保羅生活在羅馬政府的威權壓制下,那是在信仰上的黑夜,外在環境雖然黑暗,但他心中的依然有亮光,他是用正面積極的態度來看這一切,因此說「黑夜已深、白晝將近」。在等候主來的這段時間不是在屋內閉門感嘆夜深,而是走出門外成為照明城市街道的亮光。在生活見證與生命品格上,讓別人在我們身上看見主的榮耀、主的生命,這就是所謂的「披戴基督」。

神子耶穌從天上寶座降世為人,卻走了一條與世人不一樣的路。當雅各、約翰這一對兄弟,向耶穌討左右高位時,耶穌的教導卻是為首要先為僕。理由是:「因為人子來,不是要受人的服事,乃是要服事人,並且要捨命,作多人的贖價。」(可10:45)聖經中讓我們看到,耶穌為跟隨祂的人所立下的榜樣,是為天國的緣故讓自己成為世人的「公僕」。因此作主門徒的政治,不是昧於掌權者,也不在於使用武力抗暴,而是以基督徒復活的的新生命作為對權力結構的批判,此即基督的「生命政治」(biopolitics)。

基督徒參與公眾的事務,不僅是為了守律法和盡義務,因此不該讓政治成為屬靈生命的排斥和累贅;參與在服事眾人的工作當中,為的是「行公義、好憐憫,存謙卑的心,與神同行」,這一切都是來自於對基督永恆國度的盼望。

更重要的是,聖經告訴我們,有一天這世上的一切都要過去,我們不用選舉、沒有紛爭,地上的國權不再,再有勢力的君王也無人紀念,因為地上的國要成我主耶穌基督的國。這是基督徒永恆的盼望,因此教會與信徒公眾參與的手段必須被這個盼望所引導。她的目的不在於在世界中掌權,而在於操練屬天的品格以及幫助世人看見上帝。原來我們的終極關懷不在地上,而是在天上神的國度。

當信徒預備好自己在今生實踐主的教導,使教會配得稱為基督的新婦、成為基督的肢體,我們將得見主的國度大有能力地降臨在我們當中,叫我們今生與來世都與祂一同作王。

文摘參考資料與原文連結

靈命近況:Poor in my life, rich in God’s life

I was blown away by the sermon I preached at Bloomington church yesterday, which in turn has shown it’s really God preaching to me:

We are told that each craft has its practical use. Every single skill you’ve learnt, every single class you’ve taken, and every single book you’ve read, are meant to be used in solving a practical problem, be shown of the transformative result, and correspondingly shall bring you financial reward.

However, this is not how prophetic ministry (and the scholarly discipline of theology for that matter) works.

Instead of prosperity, it must go hand-in-hand with loneliness and poverty and should go on like that at all times.

The point is not (as traditional essentialists claimed) that in the end-time, our fate shall reverse, as if those suffer right now will ONE DAY get rich and happy in Heaven.

The point is that a Christian will just be ETERNALLY poor and lonely, yet dialectically, we are AT THE SAME TIME rich and happy in the "Christ reality"– a reality that trumps the physical reality at the present time and in the end-time shall supervened upon the physical reality.

Glory resides and subsists in suffering, yet in faith ultimately supervenes on it. Exaltation resides and subsists in humiliation, yet in faith ultimately supervenes on it; and wealth- poverty; joy- sorrow.

An ethical ontology that is actualistic

As I prepared my testimony for my sermon, I am just amazed at the abundance of grace God has given me in my life to see through this dialectics.

What is a seemingly foolish investment and stumbling career is proven a tool by which God shapes and sharpens me into a cornerstone upon which the Builder may lay a foundation for His Kingdom.

[書摘] Eberhard Jüngel’s theological ontology

The fact that in the incarnation God became man without ceasing to be God, tells us that his nature is characterized by both repose and movement, and that his eternal Being is also a divine Becoming. This does not mean that God ever becomes other than he eternally is or that he passes over from becoming into being something else, but rather that he continues unceasingly to be what he always is and ever will be in the living movement of its eternal Being. His becoming is not a becoming on the way toward being or toward a fullness of being, but is the eternal fullness and the overflowing of his eternal unlimited Being. Becoming expresses the dynamic nature of his Being. His becoming is, as it were, the other side of his Being, and his being is the other side of his Becoming. His Becoming is his Being movement and his Being in movement is his becoming. –T.F. Torrance, The Christian doctrine of God (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1996).

Based on John Webster’s translation and introduction of Eberhard Jüngel’s God’s Being Is in Becoming (Eerdmans, 2001):

Jüngel (along with Moltmann though with much more philosophical sophistication) is the early exemplar of what 35 years on has become an established tendency to deploy the doctrine of the Trinity in order to differentiate [Christian] theology from philosophical theism. Jüngel insisted that ontology is properly theological, and ‘becoming’ is a function of God and not vice versa. (On this point, Milbank’s demand has already been fulfilled by Jüngel’s exposition of Barth.)

Jüngel’s study has been widely criticized as Hegelian (McCormack with his postliberal actualistic ontology also suffers from this misconception) by conservative Barthians (typically neo-reformed theologians; e.g., G. O’Collins) who distrust both languages. The experience of being a pupil of Bultmann leads Jüngel to be much more sensitive to the existential reality of God: only when God is perceived in the movement of procession, we can talk about a genuine encounter between God and humanity.

Such a talk about God raises hermeneutical questions— questions concerning God as the quantification of human subjectivity. As such, Jüngel actually offers a dogmatic justification (i.e., his theological ontology) with the hermeneutical problem dealt with under the notion of the divine possession. This should distinguish him (as well as other expositors of later Barth) from other neo-orthodox correlationists (expositors of Bultmann and Tillich), though the latter want to claim Jüngel (and Barth) as their own.

What further distinguishes Jüngel and Barth himself is that Barth is very reluctant to make any concession to existentialism due to his “anti-liberal constraints”. What in Jüngel’s system proceeds hermeneutically tends to be undertaken doctrinally in Barth’s theology (specifically, Christ’s resurrection and prophetic ministry).

For Jüngel though, his Christology has such a narrow focus on Jesus’ speech-acts and his death, as a result of which the presence and agency of the resurrected Christ in the power of the Holy Spirit are not often fully operative. In other words, Barth’s pneumatology left underdeveloped in Jüngel’s system.

Furthermore, he also too often separates God’s [intercepted word of] revelation to human historical process from his practical theology (ethics, ecclesiology, and sacramental theology). Moltmann (and other social Trinitarians after him) might say against him that he still typifies a type of western theism that fails to take the relational (economic) aspects of the Trinity seriously, so as to risk closing all the divine life from human participation and leaving human history as a realm of mere secularity (it makes some sense but not too fair a judgment against Jüngel though IMO).

Concerning these two perceived lacunas (pneumatology and theological ethics) in Jüngel’s Barthian scholarship, the name Paul Nimmo just came to my mind, whose journal paper “Barth and the Election- Trinity debate: a Pneumatological View” ( included in Trinity and Election in Contemporary Theology, Michael T. Dempsey ed., Eerdmans, 2011) and Being in Action: The Theological Shape of Barth’s Ethical Vision (T&T Clark, 2007) may supply timely fuel to the ongoing postliberal project of developing Barth.

Book Review: God’s Being is in Becoming: The Trinitarian Being of God in the Theology of Karl Barth

God's Being is in Becoming: The Trinitarian Being of God in the Theology of Karl BarthGod’s Being is in Becoming: The Trinitarian Being of God in the Theology of Karl Barth by John B. Webster
My rating: 4 of 5 stars

According to John Webster, Jungel has some major preoccupations other than the exposition of Barth’s Trinitarian topics (such as preichoresis, appropriation as a hermeneutical process, and the inseparability of God’s essence and work).
This is not about the concrete examination of God as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, either.

Indeed, Jungel’s major concern is about the philosophical/ontological problem of Christian doctrine ( the Christian faith in its dogmatic particularity).
Jungel identifies the problem as resultant from questionable metaphysical presuppositions under which the Church used to speak about God.

Namely, can God be talked about objectively like we talk about a thing? As the late Barthian dogmatician Helmut Gollwitzer sees an over-emphasis on the non-objectifiable character of God prevalent within the Bultmmanian school of demythologizing (existentialism, idealism/anti-realism, and subjectivism) as dangerous, so Barth himself is adamant about the objectivity of God.

Joining their effort, Jungel also attempts a critical/post-critical realism in talking about "God in and for Himself".

Alternativey speaking, Barthian thinks "we must speak of God", whereas Bultmannian asks, "what dose it mean to speak of God?"

In Jungel’s opinion, he finds Gollwitzer’s is right. But Gollwitzer drives the notion of "God in and for Himself" too deep that it becomes an abstraction/metaphysical speculation. As a result, the radical historicity of God in identification with Jesus Christ is relegated to a mere function of God’s will (rather than God’s essential being).

Such as a concern leads Jungel to recast the all-important insight (along with later Barth) that God is the event of his radical historical presence in Jesus Christ. To spell this out requires mathematics of the triune God and a theological ontology of divine ‘becoming’ which is directed by that dogmatics. This is what Jungel in this book seeks to apply.

It involves the following steps/thematic expositions:

1) language: How can human language ‘predicate’ God?

Barth is unease with the idea that human language by itself is capable of speaking of God; it needs to be ‘commandeered’ by revelation, for language is an interpretation of Revelation, which is free, dynamic, and integral and cannot be ‘captured’ by language.
In other words, God is the speaker of revelation, human the interpreter.

2) revelation: God’s-self interpretation

The event of divine communication- its inception, enactment, and its effectuation [in time]- is a free divine activity whereby God’s whole being is united and made known.

3) The unity of God’s being

The basic principle of God’s self-correspondence means that the being of God is relationally structured in a set of order of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The doctrine of perichoresis allows us to understand the unity of God as an event of the mutual interpenetration of the divine three modes of being. And the doctrine of appropriation in enables theologically coherent talk about the three persons in majors roles such as the Creator, the Redeemer, and the Reconciler.

4) Christology

The union of divinity and humanity in Jesus Christ has an anthropological significance in that it brings our existence into a definite relation with God. Jungel thinks that for Barth, there is an analogical relation of theology and anthropology (whereas Bultmann dissolutes theology into anthropology).

5) The election

Jungel links the above points made with the doctrine of election, which should be drawn back to God’s own being as His self-election, rather than being relegated to the human scope (as traditionally it was) of God’s saving work of souls.
This means that God elects Himself in eternity to be the relation to us through Christ- who is the man Jesus, the Second Adam and the Head of human beings.

Webster’s translation is superb and does not stop you from reading this book pages after pages.
Jungel is also an excellent writer. In Webster’s words, his writing on Barth "is interpretation of the highest order", with "a keen eye for the details of Barth’s thought, as well as a clear appreciation of its overall shape and the coherence, and an insistence on its thoroughly theological character, which means that he can make constructive use of Barth without simply pondering the Barth corpus for material to press into service in other causes."

View all my reviews

[文摘] Stanley Hauerwas: Why Jesus have to Die? (2006 Princeton lecture for the Institute for Youth Ministry)

Source Link: http://www.ptsem.edu/uploadedFiles/School_of_Christian_Vocation_and_Mission/Institute_for_Youth_Ministry/Princeton_Lectures/2007_Hauerwas_Why.pdf

[summarizing excerpt below that is modestly re-written]

 

On the problem of American evangelicalism (specifically emotionalism and “cultural syncretism”):

When you celebrate “Mother’s Day,” the only thing to do with texts where Jesus distanced his mother is “explain them [away],” which usually means Jesus could not have meant what he plainly says. Of course the presumption that Christianity is a family-friendly faith is a small change perversion of the gospel when compared to the use of faith in God to underwrite American pretensions.

Evangelical Protestantism, in its concern for helping every individual to make his own authentic choice in full awareness and sincerity, is thus in constant danger of confusing the kingdom itself with the benefits of the kingdom:

The gospel will do something for the aimlessness of his life. It will do something for his loneliness by giving him fellowship. It will do something for his anxiety and guilt by giving him a good conscience. It will do something for his intellectual confusion by giving him doctrinal meat to digest, a heritage to appreciate, and conscience about telling it all as it is. It will do something for his moral weakness by giving him the focus for wholesome self-discipline, it will keep him from immorality and get him to work on time.

–The Original Revolution, John Howard Yoder

Universities are places where you are educated to make up your own mind. This tells that you need to be trained before you can begin thinking.

In the Lukan temptation narrative, we are told that he “was driven out” to face the devil no less, but we know such language is “mythical,” which is about his spiritual struggle with the existential nothingness of existence—a struggle necessary for his ability to make an authentic choice about how he would live his life.

When Jesus was told by the devil that he would be given the power to turn stones to bread, he refused; when Jesus was offered authority over all the kingdoms of this world, he refused; when he was offered the possibility he would not die, he refused. He did so because Jesus knows God’s kingdom cannot be forced into existence using the means of the devil.

Jesus refuses to use the violence of the world to achieve “peace.” The kingdom politics is one that comes through the transformation of the world’s understanding of how to achieve good results.

Jesus is the politics of the new age. The offense is not that Jesus wanted his followers to be loving, but the offense is Jesus. He created a new time that gives us the time not only to care for the poor but to be poor:

The proud would have their imaginations “scattered,” the powerful would be brought down from their thrones, the rich would be sent away empty, the lowly would be lifted up, and the hungry would be filled with good things. Is it any wonder that the world was not prepared to welcome this savior?

Facing the political challenge before Pilate, Jesus denied that his kingdom was just another form of Rome. The world’s politics is based on violence, believed necessary given the absence of truth. It is kill or be killed. That is the politics that has been overwhelmed in Christ’s death and resurrection.

“I have spoken openly to the world; I have always taught in the synagogues and in the temple, where all the Jews come together. I have said nothing in secret.”

The gospel is a society in which difference is not denied but used for the discovery of goods in common.

He gave them a new way to deal with offenders—by forgiving them. He gave them a new way to deal with violence—by suffering. He gave them a new way to deal with money—by sharing it. He gave them a new way to deal with problems of leadership—by drawing on the gift of every member, even the most humble. He gave them a new way to deal with a corrupt society—by building a new order, not making the old. He gave them a new pattern of relationships between man and woman, between parent and child, between master and slave, in which was made concrete a radical new vision of what it means to be a human person. He gave them a new attitude toward the state and toward the “enemy nation.”

The gospel frees us from the presumed necessities that we inflict on ourselves in the name of “peace,” a peace that too often turns out to be an order established and continued through violence.

If such a [suffering] church does not exist, the world has no alternative to the violence hidden in our fear of one another.

Søren Kierkegaard analogizes in the resurrection  a story told like this:

A prince riding through his field sees a beautiful peasant girl gathering the crops. He falls instantly in love with her. However, he is a noble prince and does not want to overwhelm her with his power and riches, so he dresses in peasant clothes and goes to work side by side with her.

She is beautiful and he is noble so we know they will love one another. But we want to know when the prince will show his true identity? When and how the prince will reveal to his beloved that she has fallen in love with the prince himself?

Kierkegaard suggests that we think the resurrection reveals it– the only problem with so thinking of the resurrection is that Jesus has no purple under his flesh. Jesus is peasant clothes, flesh, all the way down. He is not playing at being a human. (Note this is where Barthian [acutalistic and historicized] and Moltmannian [social and panentheistic] Christology comes in.) He is human all the way down. The resurrected Christ is the crucified Christ. Only such a Christ can save us. For Jesus is the Christ, being for us this particular man making possible a particular way of life that is an alternative to the world’s fear of one like Jesus, an alternative to all politics that are little less than conspiracies to deny death.

People (e.g. martyrs) are dying to be part of an adventure that will give us a worthy task. I think the gospel is such an adventure.

[文摘] Book Review: Unsettling Arguments: A Festschrift on the Occasion of Stanley Hauerwas’s 70th Birthday

John Bowlin (Princeton Theological Seminary) gives Hauerwas a "harsh" critique that turns out to be a favorable review of this festschrift, which is far from a blind devotion and praise by the students and friends of this 70-year-old man, whose

…dependence on Yoder runs afoul of his devotion to Aristotle. He domesticates Wittgenstein’s skepticism in order to discount his own individualism. He misconstrues the church as polis, makes a mess of practical reason, and gives metaphysics short shrift. He bungles the relationship between disability and grace, misunderstands how liturgy affects the moral life, and runs rough shod over the just war tradition. He is not yet a pacifist! He is an heir of the liberalism he despises!

…what we find is appreciation mixed with complaint, confidence leavened with doubt, and loyalty expressed in conversation. That we might all have such students, such friends! (read more)

And then here is a good review that engages with the book content by Chris Enstad:

The festschrift is divided into four sections: Influences, Politics, Bodies and Practices. Anyone who has come across Hauerwas’ influence on the academy and the church has most likely done so through one of these pathways. Perhaps the reader was a fan of Wittgenstein and discovered Hauerwas’ attempts to rescue the church from the liberal attempt to make it a “community.” Maybe a Catholic theology student, in attempting to find some leaven amongst the loaves of Catholic thought, found Dr. Hauerwas’ brilliant interactions with Thomas Aquinas. Most likely some emerging church folks tripped upon Hauerwas through a discovery of John Howard Yoder.

More recently Hauerwas’ name became associated with the debates over Just War theory. It is interesting to read criticisms of Hauerwas’ membership in the Methodist Church while he pushes his claim that the true church can only be pacifist. One can feel his admirers pushing this polemicist to become even MORE polemical or, at the least, to reconcile his actions and beliefs on this topic. Hauerwas’ life is a living example of the God-created human being seeking, making, and teaching meaning even as he admits to never quite having a grasp on perfection.

In the “Bodies” section of the book we come across some of the more pointed criticisms of Hauerwas. It is here that we interact with him around topics such as the question of Judaism, feminism, family and racism. All of these are timely topics and all are written from the perspective of critical love for the man and his mind. Both conservative and liberal church theologians would do well to check into these sections as they work to bring their own particular theologies into contact with the real world!

Finally we come across the idea of “practices”. For Hauerwas, the life well-lived is one lived as a liturgy of discipleship. It is in this section that we begin exploring the areas of friendship, worship, discipleship, and how Hauerwas has contributed to the question of moral formation at schools of higher education.

It is the last point that is the most telling, for me, in this entire collection. Michael Cartwright seeks to engage our thinking around the the idea of Hauerwas taking up the Middle Age position of “Verger” of the Church-related University. The Verger was the one appointed to walk in ahead of the bishop or president in any formal procession to clear their way. In their life and in their work, polemical lovers of Christ and his Church, like Stanley Hauerwas, have always used their ideas to “clear the way” for new ideas and visions.

 

[文摘] 從實踐理性(Practical Reason)到神學-康德(Kant)學派如何壓倒休模(Hume)學派

「從實踐理性(Practical Reason)到神學-康德(Kant)學派如何壓倒休模(Hume)學派」

從實踐理性到道德實在論到神學包含六個完整步驟。借鑒來自 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy的上篇文摘,以下是個人的推導以及綜合論證:

一、理論理性與實踐理性的對照:

理論理性意味一個人對於「無法改變的過去」和「無法預測的未來」的想法。實踐理性關乎一個人對「當前行動方針以及可預期之後果」的想法。

二、自然主義(反實在論)、實在論、建構論:

這第二個階段會拉出三條戰線,說明「合理性」(rationality)該以什麼為依歸。畢竟沒有依歸,理性就是空談,與浪漫感性的非理性無異。

自然主義也就是休模的反實在論道路,認為合理性最終的依歸就是一個人的感性慾望。所以人在本質上與依靠本能行事的動物無異,差別只在人曉得用比較複雜的語言去修飾他的動機。這說明了為何這套理論叫做自然主義。

實在論則目前在哲學上式微,它必須被先置之死地,而後透過神學(彌賽亞式地)復生。實在論認為,有一套抽象卻永恆的法則,可以用來判定合理性。但這套法則的內容有哪些?人又是如何知道以及能夠探討它們?誰說得算?實在論者最答不上話的地方在這裡。

建構論,則是晚期康德的追隨者和當代社會學理論興起後的倫理學家偏好的想法。康德晚期有一個關於「認識論範疇」(epistemological categories)的重要觀念,稱觀念的感知和輸出都必須透過 (conditioned by)人類感知「有限的範疇」。因此,實在論者認為能用以判定合理性的抽象法則確實存在,但不是本來就存在,而是「自然界一切的條件」被人類集體用大腦的範疇詮釋過後,建構出來的。

例如,「人類的生理條件是必須兩性交合才能繁衍後代、以雙親為養育單位能提升後代的生存優勢」,人類接著

1) 從這些外部物理和生理法則建構出「家庭價值」文明慣例- externalization

2) 將之被上綱為永恆真理的法則,冠以「神聖不可抹滅」一類的修辭- objectivation

3) 並用以批判「同性戀」或「人民公社」一類的做法為反自然或反道德的不合理行為 - internalization

三、從目前佔上風的休模自然主義者追溯下去,又分為「內在派」和「外在派」:

內在派認為一個人實踐理性的合理性應該以他自己的目的為參照。例如一個男孩的目標如果是長高和打NBA,他符合實踐理性的想法應該會衍生出自己應該注重營養、運動,以及早睡的倫理要求。也就是說,「營養、運動,早睡」應該是他能用「工具理性」所導出的合理途徑。

外在派確認為人往往對於自己的目的(人真正要什麼)這件事是不太清楚的。男孩想打NBA可能表面上來自於他被林書豪激勵。但實際上一直有很多的外來觀念輸入輸出影響了他的實踐理性以及價值觀運作。同時,在他注重「營養、運動,早睡」時,他可能會發現新的動機,例如是因為打球好玩而玩、因為身高和健康形象可以幫助他吸引到女孩子、或因為牛排好吃而吃。這些動機都是寄生在他在過程中所遭遇的外在事物(籃球運動的本質、周遭女孩子的魅力、牛排的美味)上,而非本來就在他前進NBA的夢想中通盤考量過的。

因此,外在派認為光靠一個人的原初動機,將無法判定行為的合理性-人無可避免地需要參考外在的標準或價值觀,即便這價值觀仍是一種虛幻。實踐理性並非只倚靠個人的內在動機。

四、工具理性和結構(價值/目的)理性:

把內在派和外在派的爭議延伸,會出現對休模自然主義的另一大挑戰:「如何判斷工具理性的合理性?」

例如,如果我說自己的理想是成為一個大書法家,有人能告訴我該先學習臨摹誰的字帖才是最符合工具理性的抉擇嗎?該買哪一支毛筆?該用哪一牌的墨水?買多貴的硯台?一天該習寫幾小時?如果三年還沒有辦法得獎,是不是就該放棄?要死後才能被被追封為「小柳宗元」,那這是今世還值得做嗎?

如果沒有標準答案,工具理性就會崩潰。這也是休模本人變成懷疑主義者的原因。

還有一個問題必須釐清:工具理性是否能夠成為行為的動機?許多人認為不會。舉例來說,假如全天下的男人死到只剩一個,小愛想要有孩子就必須面對剩下這個自己不喜歡的男人。那麼她的「工具理性」告訴她自己必須和這個男人在一起。但她卻不是為了和這個男人在一起而在一起。必須從更大的結構,也就是結構(價 值/目的)理性-:她想有自己的孩子-,來看待小愛和這個男人在一起的動機。工具理性的思維內,沒有一項能夠等於同她本人最終選擇這個行為的動機。

這樣,很多人認為工具理性就沒辦法獨存,必須用一種涵蓋個人複合性思考的價值理性,才能說明實踐理性的運作方式。

  • Structural rationality means instrumental rationality is connected naturally to the larger principle of life (a value system and some -isms).

五、合理性最大化概念對結構(價值/目的)理性的批判困境:

對休模路線的追打還不僅於此。如果我們繼續用啟蒙理性的個人主義來推導,將要面對下一個泯滅人性的挑戰:我們按照一個人最終所想望的目的,來概觀(蓋棺)斷定一個人的具體行為是否符合他的既定價值觀,這樣的實踐理性會不會管太寬? 好比有一群人說自己可以合理批判林書豪狂吃雞翅與愛打電動的行為,因為這和他聲稱想要藉打籃球以及幫助窮人榮耀神的終極目標不符!

按照合理性最大化Maximizing Rationality),他們確實合理,因為林書豪不該有這些心口不一的行為!

但是在心理層面以及實際生活上,合理性滿足論Satisfying Rationality)者告訴我們,他已經為他榮神益人的目標做了很多,符合他自己和世人對正派、表裡如一(integrity)的要求了。他並不需要藉由完全戒除暴食或電動;「合理性最大化」是一種苛求;那叫扭曲人性,是「非理性」!

殊不知「合理性滿足論」是對休模系統的致命打擊!一旦連「合理性最大化」都放棄,休模體系幾乎就玩完了。因為「滿足論」讓理性的標準變得完全主觀而浮動,這種面目全非的理性主義簡直就是浪漫主義。

舉例來說,一個80公斤胖妹想減肥,目標是「徐若瑄」,結果四個月後她卻以減了自己15公斤為達成目標而開心滿足。按照「滿足論」,誰能說她不是?

最大化有人覺得要到41公斤才算,因此批判她不夠努力;有人覺得50公斤可以了;有人覺得重點是降體脂;有人覺得她從一開始拿徐若瑄當目標就不切實際,是受病態的審美觀影響、健康就好…。

總之,沒人能從這事上達致一個普世理性的判別標準。這也是人類溝通和輿論和很多無謂的爭鬧與吵架的原因。放棄了「合理性最大化」,自然主義的休模學派還能幫實踐理性找到立足之地嗎?

六、壓垮休模學派的最後一根稻草,與「實踐理性神學」的誕生:

, Prussian philosopher. Português: , filósofo ...

, Prussian philosopher. Português: , filósofo alemão. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

攻擊休模學派的人,卻不想跟他們有機會喘息。下一個挑戰者馬上又提出:

1) 如果休模學派說的結構理性「無法以個人當下的意念作依歸」。

2) 而需要「從效果滿意與否」來判定這個人的工具行動到底是否達到目的(有達到目的就算理性),

3) 那麼休模學派恐怕大大地錯估人性以及人的價值。因為「人永遠不會滿足於一時一刻的狀態」,甚至「一時產生結果的不滿意也無法否定一個人的價值」。

男孩想打NBA成為林書豪,但結果可能是他的天分不夠,或是19歲大學第一年因傷重挫退出球場,那麼我們自然無法用他20歲時的心境來審判他10歲時所許的願和所付出的行動。他可能會發現自己真正的志向是成為一位牧師,而且非常滿足!

反之亦然。當他打上了NBA,他也有可能不以林書豪為滿,而想要成為黃種人的喬丹!

真正的矛盾是:休模把人割裂了。

從靈魂深處動機來看,十歲和二十歲時這簡直是兩個不同的人。反對者逼問,休模用一個「可以隨時隨地改變的想法和目的的個人主觀」來操作實踐理性,這還能叫做個人主義嗎?畢竟在哲學維度上,你已經放棄了將個體理解為「在不同時間段的想法具備連續性的整全靈魂」。你用男孩二十歲的主觀意念,來壓倒他十歲時主觀念頭,就同樣可以用他三十歲的主觀,取消他早期的實踐理性。

如果本質上割裂成這樣,為什麼還堅持個人主義,不將其他的行為者也加入實踐理性的運作內涵中?

這個開啟「他者」論述的大決,其實是要從更深層推翻功利實踐理性,並開始讓康德建構派以及韋伯社會學派佔了上風:「『一個人到底要什麼』這件事,被證明了無法從一個人身上確定。」

在「他者」進來後,「德性」也進場了,整個實踐理性通過另一種面貌活了起來,並且讓康德學派和神學家開始轉守為攻。原來所謂的理性,並不是「個人行為抉擇」和「抽象的普世價值」之間的直接對應,而是在具體的關係中產生。

真實經歷是,我從前曾經在白沙灣海水浴場中和朋友一齊被暗流捲入,我比較靠岸而且有幸找到方法游出。正當慶幸時,竟看到朋友游不出來在我身後呼救。

經過半秒的猶豫,我轉身再撲向深水區。

在那一刻幫助切實地戰勝危險與恐懼的,不是理性和普世價值(例如「增進和死黨彼此友情」或「上帝的愛」這樣的抽象動機);而是這位朋友和我在真實互動關係中所流洩的友情和人性在那具體環境下驅策著我。

「我不想失去他、更不想否定我自己的友愛和人性。」

回游時,我確實明白所承受的是一個可能讓自己和他一同喪命的風險。但我更不希望「袖手而去」的念頭被付諸實踐而成為世界歷史的一部份。這樣不管之後他救生員搭救或出意外,我都要背負著泯滅人性的擔子過一輩子。

後來我搭上他的手一起游出暗流,而這事件因為先有我過去信 仰的塑造、我和朋友的交誼,才能在事件的當下抉擇(德性)以及後果彰顯出它完整的價值理性

(用個人功利主義和工具理性來解釋我救人行為的倫理哲學、以及當前保守神學院把啟蒙邏輯這一套照搬,使用道德原則釋經法的破爛聖經倫理學,只會讓我覺得憤怒。)

這樣,一種既不是出自個人既定目的-畢竟誰不想活?,也不是出於單純結果論畢竟誰說救人一定成功?的道德價值必然得存在;它是一種無法直接對應於自然物質和法則的倫理,以一種超越了實踐理性和理論理性鴻溝的高尚輝澤,在照亮世人。

亦 即,實踐理性不再只是關乎一個人對「當前的行動方針以及可預期的後果」的想法,它甚至必須跟一個人對於過去與未來的信念緊密連結,才能產生意義。換句話說,對「世界真正應該要擁有的面貌」的想法與盼望,才能促使人在面對「不可預期的後果」時,對那些他們認定為有終極價值的事物依然奮不顧身。

當這個價值被具體實踐在關係中,一種「非主觀性」的溝通理性也應運而生,並且取代了抽象、冰冷、個人化的「工具理性」。這樣道德實在論,就具備兩套可以完整發展的雛形(廣義的道德實在論包然道德建構論),神學的視界也就此展開。

1)

對康德來說,他說他需要一個神來支撐這樣的道德律。但是這樣的神只需要是一個自然神就夠了。祂不需要有人性/ 位格性(personality)。對康德建構派來說也是如此,因為他們雖然大多數認同社會學的「價值理性」或「溝通理性」,卻認為神只需要作為人類大腦思維範疇的理性的超自然支撐就好了,祂不需要親自「下海」 示範這類理性該如何完美運作。

康德建構派的道德雖然是實體(viz., goodness as a non-natural property),卻仍是人類思維的產物。所以康德選擇在實在界(noumena)、現象界(phenomena)之外,再用觀念界去安置實踐理性。這部分 縱使有爭論空間,但康德是唯心論者是沒有爭議的。(具體地說,康德認為把這套絕對性的道德義務,也就是「無上律令」 categorical imperative 直接賴到那位理性的自然神身上就好了。但建構派卻因為想把神推得更搖遠,而將事情搞複雜了。)

2)

因而最後我們意外地發現,在休模學派頹圮的殘垣,和康德鋪石大道的叉路盡頭,竟展現著神學的曙光。

把「溝通理性」的溝通等同於「思辯」,這是對溝通理性最貧弱的一種理解,是馬克斯主義者對韋伯的一種扭曲,也是康德建構派很容易就被後結構主義以及解構派的幽靈給纏上原因。

基督教神學卻在這裡為道德實在論提供了最關鍵且最後的一塊拼圖,包含德性、關係,以及律例。這三者不單是理性思維交流建構的結果,更是道成肉身「神聖歷史」的本像,來自一位透過創造、捨己、以及同在,向人類自我啟示與溝通的神:

「我們愛, 因為神先愛我們」(約翰一書4:19

你們要彼此相愛, 像我愛你們一樣; 這就是我的命令。人為朋友捨命, 人的愛心沒有比這個大的。(約翰福音15:12-13

「惟有基督在我們還作罪人的時候為我們死,神的愛就在此向我們顯明了。」(羅馬書5:8)

這是比一位希臘先哲式和啟蒙式的 LawGiver 和更大、更豐富的神; 是亞伯拉罕、以撒、雅各所信仰的神。

 

 

[文摘] Which Vocations Should Be Off Limits to Christians?

Source Link: Which Vocations Should Be Off Limits to Christians?

The Reformation doctrine of vocation teaches that even seemingly secular jobs and earthly relationships are spheres where God assigns Christians to live out their faith. But are there some lines of work that Christians should avoid?

Gene Edward Veith, provost and professor of literature at Patrick Henry College in Purcellville, Virginia, gives us some principles in the above article for us to ponder:

  • The purpose of every vocation, in all of the different spheres in which our multiple vocations occur—the family, the workplace, the culture, and the church—is to love and serve our neighbors.
  • God Never Calls Us to Sin: This mean Christian moral issue arises when we
    1. derive [sinful] pleasure through vocation: Luther thinks that "a Christian cannot with a good conscience be an inn-keeper, merchant, or maker of weapons".
    2. profit from Sin: Obviously, those who make their living by robbery are not loving their neighbors. Heroin dealers, hit men, con artists, and other criminals are hurting their neighbors and have no calling from God to do so.
  • Debate: Can Soldiers Be Saved? In Whether Soldiers Too Can Be Saved, Martin Luther proposes his [in]famous Two-Kingdom view and says yes. He argues that though individual Christians must not kill, the governing authority as a collective power institution has authorized by God to "bear the sword" and take human life  (Romans 13:1-7). Thus soldiers are authorized by their calling to love and serve their fellow citizens by defending them, even when that means killing the enemy (while, as Christians, still love those enemies, instead of hating them, holding malice against them, or abusing captives or civilians).
  • Vocations are not of equal moral and social status: The wealthy, esteemed, and honored often have a more problematic vocation than do the poorer folks who, in a kind of labor the Bible especially honors, work with their hands (1 Thessalonians 4:11). The "idle rich" and usury– multiplying one’s wealth by taking advantage of a neighbor’s need– inspire rants. But it is today’s economy Does these people even consider themselves having a neighbor?

"All callings, or vocations, from God are thus valid places to serve. So strictly speaking there are no unlawful vocations; the question should actually be whether or not a particular way of making a living is a vocation at all."

This is a very interesting topic. Nodding to the Lurtheran view of Gene Edward Veith that considers soldering a [potentially] God-honoring vocation, Keith Pavlischek made a comment below the article, which is my view is worth quoting (emphasis mine, and I am glad someone someone here mentions Hays):

Several years back a colleague and I presented a paper at the Evangelical Philosophical Society related to the argument for pacifism by the New Testament scholar Richard Hays. I framed a part of the argument around the notion of calling, suggesting that while certainly some offices and callings were out of bounds, such as prostitution and being a "pimp," we are not invited by the the New Testament to view the office and calling of a soldier like that–as intrinsically immoral. Which was why an organization such as "Officers Christian Fellowship" was permissible but an organization such as "pimps for Jesus" was not.

To make a long story short, Hays took the bull by the horns and flat-out admitted that serving in the military WAS a form of prostitution, saying that he was particularly appalled by those military chaplains who recruited at Duke Divinity School, and that this was indeed a form of prostitution. This is an even more radical position that that of classical Anabaptistism, which viewed these offices as legitimate for non-Christians, but "outside the perfection of Christ" for believers–another topic altogether). Of course, Professor Hays is now the President of that institution.

… it is quite true that "all soldering" is not "God honoring." But then, all types of parenting, or teaching, or painting, or athletic performance, or a pastor is not "God honoring" either. The fundamental issue is not whether one can act wrongly as a soldier, or parent, or athlete, or artist, or pastor but whether the "office" or the "calling" is, by its very nature, immoral and out of bounds.

There is a lot more to be said (what of those legitimate callings and offices that have become so culturally corrupt that withdrawal from them would be wise and prudent?). But until you get that basic understanding right, you won’t even begin to get at the issues on the margin.

To be sure, coming from the postliberal tradition, I have always reckon Lutheran two-Kingdom theology to be more problem inducing, schizophrenic, rather than biblical.  I think by quoting Rom 13:1-7 as a justification of the two-Kingdom view, Gene Edward Veith is confusing soldiering with policing. To me, it is clear that while police execute justice for the government (and that include take away lives in certain circumstances), soldiers are instructed to fight exclusively for national interest out of patriotism.

Theologically speaking — as if the underline above is not obvious enough for Christian readers–, unless we can establish a case of "holy war" in our modern time, it is hard to derive any eschatological value (i.e. "the perfection of Christ") in the act of soldiering.

John Howard Yoder, one of the major source of inspiration for postliberal theology, put it in this way in The Political Axioms of the Sermon on the Mount

"This temptation is still with us, especially with regard to the problem of violence and national egoism which are our special concern here. One reason most theologies want to replace the Sermon on the Mount with some other standards is just this: they want something possible, something you can teach to all your children and require of all your parishoners, a goal a man can realistically reach. This is a very logical desire, if our goal is to be moral mentors and “preachers” of a self-justifying civilization, including service as chaplain to its armies. Jesus criticism is only that this goal is not the same as being heralds of His kingdom…
Our deeds must be measured not only by whether they fit certain rules, nor by the results they hope to achieve, but by what they "say":
What do I communicate to a man about the love of God by being willing to consider him an enemy? What do I say about personal responsibility by agreeing to consider him my enemy when it is only the hazard of birth that causes us to live under different flags? What do I say about forgiveness if I punish him for the sins of his rulers? How is it reconcilable with the gospel – the good news – for the last word in my estimate of any man to be that, in a case of extreme conflict, it could be my duty to sacrifice his life for the sake of my nation, my security, or the political order which I prefer?"

Yoder’s postliberal ethcis basically demolishes the cheap salvation offered by "justification by faith" and "two-kingdom theology",which operates under the assumption that the present world order is good and should be left alone by Christians to God’s business, instead of messy and to our collective responsibility to revolutionize and reconstruct.

That being said, I still think there is one form of soldiering in which Yoder would acquiesce and should stand in line with the ideals of Rom 13:1-7 in equivalence to policing: peacemaking.

According to Wikipedia,

Peacekeeping is anything that contributes to the furthering of a peace process, once established. This includes, but is not limited to, the monitoring of withdrawal by combatants from a former conflict area, the supervision of elections, and the provision of reconstruction aid. Peacekeepers are often soldiers, but they do not have to be. Similarly, while soldier-peacekeepers are sometimes armed, they are not obligated to engage in combat.

Peacekeepers were not at first expected to ever fight. As a general rule, they were deployed when the ceasefire was in place and the parties to the conflict had given their consent. They were deployed to observe from the ground and report impartially on adherence to the ceasefire, troop withdrawal or other elements of the peace agreement. This gave time and breathing space for diplomatic efforts to address the underlying causes of conflict.

A peacekeeping operation is led by the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO), and works to create the conditions for lasting peace in a country torn by conflict. The United Nations Charter gives the United Nations Security Council the power and responsibility to take collective action to maintain international peace and security. Most of these operations are established and implemented by the United Nations itself, with troops serving under UN operational control.

While I have no doubt that the military training itself foster Christlike characters such as obedience, discipline, and self-control, a Christian solder served in the military must be consciously aware that the cause he ultimately fights for has an eternal value.

To conclude, I would modify and advance Gene Edward Veith’s thesis with the following three guidelines:

  1. Before we discuss "Which Vocations Should Be Off Limits to Christians", let’s be aware that some particular (sinful) ways of making a living cannot be called a vocation at all: robbery, assassin, scamming, fortunetelling with witchcraft, wetc.
  2. Many vocations can be potentially God-honoring, such as being businessmen, politicians, movie actors, and professional athletes; but because these are so culturally corrupt that those involved in them will inevitably be implicated with disgraceful and sinful praxis. To change this reality would require collective Christian efforts, such as by establishing Christian firms and political parties, as well as individual Christians being salt and light in the dirty environment. A great book of inspiration of Christian businessmen is Michael Novak’s Business as a Calling: Work and the Examined Life (1996), which I have blogged about (in Chinese).
  3. Some vocations are by their intrinsic nature in conflict against the perfection of Christ, such as most types of soldiers, certain roles of bankers, and certain government offices. The real issue is usually that they don’t encourage peace and love but conflict and injustice; they swear their ultimate allegiance not to God but to either mammon or their citizens (the maximization of the interest of certain group at the expense of the welfare of the larger human community). This is where postliberal really part ways with Lutheran reformers, who would say that as the president of USA it is God-pleasing to put the interest of American citizen to his utmost concern, even this has to compromise his allegiance to God and identity as a follower of Christ. Postliberals simply reject nationalism (which not coincidentally stemmed from the Reformation of Martin Luther) as idolatry. Nationalism cannot be justified from the perspective of preserving cultural diversity, something God takes delights in. After two world-wars and the emerging post-colonial nations in the last century, this is right now the biggest challenge (along with the issue of capitalism/mammon) confronting Christians in the global sphere in their thinking of their vocations and identity.
The Calling of Saint James and Saint John

The Calling of Saint James and Saint John (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

[文摘] Book Review: Conversing with Barth

Karl-Barth-Stube in Safenwil AG

Image via Wikipedia

Conversing with Barth. Edited by John C. McDowell and Mike Higton. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004, ix + 234 pp., $29.95 paper

The fourth book in the Barth Studies series edited by John Webster, George Hunsinger, and Hans-Anton Drewes seek to debase the misconception that Barth’s theology is arbitrary and conversation-stopping.

They contend that Barth’s commitment to identifying and articulating his own theological location actually enables a more vital and significant engagement with alternate views. There is an obvious undergirding postliberal notion: only when you are explicitly grounded in your tradition can real meaningful dialogue begin (with incommensurable counterpart).

This combination of theological particularity and conversational openness (explicated in John Webster’s opening essay) thus serves as the model upon which the 11 essays in this book operate.

Graham Ward puts Hegel and Barth in dialogue, presenting Barth as culturally open.

George Hunsinger compares Barth and Calvin in their systematic fashion of the doctrine of justification and sanctification.

Mike Higton draws parallel from Barth’s writing with the use of figural imagination by Auerbach and Dante.

Ben Quash focuses on the classy theological exchange between Barth and von Balthasar.

McDowell writes on Donald MacKinnon‘s notion of the tragic in relation to eschatology and hope in Barth.

David Clough contributes on Robert Jenson‘s theological methodology and John Howard Yoder’s pacifist criticisms of Barth’s views on just war.

Timothy Gorringe presents Barth’s view of culture. and Eugene F. Rogers, Jr. explores Barth’s pneumatology (wrongly considered as a weak spot in Barth).

David Ford concludes in a very brief afterword expressing Barth’s usefulness for contemporary conversational theology.

 

 

 

 

[文摘] 金融時報(FT中文網)全球經濟特刊:為資本主義會診(二)

Washington DC

Washington DC (Photo credit: ktylerconk)

Source Link: big5.ftchinese.com/tag/为资本主义会诊

資本主義已轉至東方?

作者:英國《金融時報》專欄作家 戴維•皮林

幾年前還很難想像,歐洲領導人會 向中國政府托缽化緣,請求提供資金紓困。甚至訪美的中國領導人公開指責美國經管理不當。世界已經發生了變化。2008年美歐金融危機幾年下來,加速了經濟動能向亞洲的轉移。

當2012年大體歐美還將繼續與衰退共舞時,許多經濟學家稱亞洲除日本以外的國家,將繼續實現7%左右的高增長。戲劇性轉折使一些亞洲人產生了某種必勝的信念:「不存在什麽資本主義危機, 存在的是西方資本主義危機,它已經得了‘老年病’。充滿能量、創新和增長渴望的生機勃勃的資本主義,已經轉移到了東方。」說這話的德賽勛爵並不是唯一感覺到某種道德因果的人。他表示,幾世紀以來,亞洲國家被西方打上「烙印」,一直被斥為不能自力更生。現在,他指出,南半球和亞洲國家更善於控制資本主義創造財富的力量的。

然而,有三個互為因果的元素得警告亞洲人別得意忘形了:

首先,除日、韓、及新加坡等小國以外,亞洲國家多半仍然貧窮。許多國家計劃走上一條逐漸吸收更多“資本主義”政策的未 來繁榮之路,這些政策包括通過放鬆國家對銀行、利率和匯率的控制,使經濟向市場開放。但愈多開放之後,它遭受新自由主義經濟不穩定性的衝擊就愈大。

過去,亞洲的技術官僚信奉向自由市場資本主義轉型,反對大政府的幹預手腕。但1997年亞洲自金融危機以來,國際貨幣基金組織(IMF)—「海耶克」主義放任經濟的華盛頓共識(Washington Consensus)之母—要泰國、印尼和韓國等經濟體削減政府開支、提高利率、切斷銀行與政府的聯系、並且放鬆監管。而現在,西方經濟體卻在為自己開出幾乎相反的藥方。他們走「凱因斯」主義的道路,加大財政政策力度、降低利率,並利用政府資金為銀行紓困。

從亞洲的角度來看,這使得西方看起來充其量只能稱得上偽善。

對致力市場改革的中國,過去的問題是:什麽樣的速度是合適的?而現在他們卻在質疑目標本身是否正確。

野村綜合研究所(Nomura Research Institute)首席經濟學家辜朝明(Richard Koo)表示,多年來,東京受到西方政策制定者的指責,理由是沒有更快地核銷問題貸款,及沒有採取更激烈的貨幣政策來復甦經濟。但西方人不懂,在崩盤後私人部門負債嚴重,正常的經濟手段不再奏效。

「日本在過去20年經歷的、以及美國和英國現在正經歷的情況是,即使利率為零,人們還是不願意借款,」他表示,「人們只是一味地還貸。」如果他說得沒錯,那麽西方經濟體將可能進入日本式的長期低增長。

第二個不安:儘管亞洲價值觀一度流行,但沒有哪個亞洲經濟體產生了可以替代資本主義的嚴密制度(更具幹預色彩的政府算嗎?)。激進的反資本主義試驗—中國式的共產主義和印度尼赫魯式的社會主義,都遭遇了慘敗。20世紀70年代末,鄧小平開始實行市場經濟,中國由此放棄了共產主義。1991年,印度放棄了使之陷入緩慢“印度式增長”的印度式社會主義。其他國家,比如越南,也紛紛效仿,開放經濟,從而開啟了自身的快速增長。相反,那些固守非市場制度的國家,比如朝鮮、緬甸和寮國,則繼續深陷在貧困的泥沼之中。

第三,亞洲不能對西方資本主義危機幸災樂禍,正如香港特首曾蔭權(Donald Tsang)所言,全球經濟同在一條大船上。在印度,人們深憂資本主義家族企業和西方金融推動下的增長好景不常。甚至中國經濟也在放緩,少數經濟學家甚至預測可能出現墜機。

亞洲國家需要向美國和歐洲進行出口貿易。中國消費者的需求僅為2兆美元,而美國消費者即使在當前拮據的情況下,每年依然要消費10兆美元。如果西方資本主義起火,火苗遲早會燒到亞洲的家門口。

西方資本主義危機給亞洲的啟示包含:

1) 政府應承擔多麽積極的角色?

西方過去一直批評亞洲經濟過多政府幹預。直到最近,大部分國家都計劃走向小政府。但西方理性市場理論的失敗,以及不痛不癢監管的明顯弊端,已經使得一些亞洲政策制定者更加審慎看待自由主義。關於政府應如何作為的問題,幾乎涵蓋了從金融監管到產業政策的方方面面。一個最重要的主題是銀行的角色。在亞洲,銀行的職能通常較為狹窄,其角色是把資金向製造業等經濟實業疏通。

這樣的銀行給經濟帶來麻煩的可能性更小,且在危機時期更容易對維護。自2008年起,北京方面(主要是中國政府和知識界中一些人)發現,保持銀行的馴服、並通過它們以固定利率把資金導向實體經濟的做法十分管用。

然而,更多人認為推縮到過去那種以政府為中心的模式是走回頭路,大多數人仍然相信,中國應該繼續走開放經濟的道路。

另一些人指出(如亞洲開發銀行的李昌庸),銀行若只能根據政府指令分配資本,等於放棄資本市場的深化發展的契機。他表示:「不飛,就不會有事故,西方有許多飛機,所以會有墜機劫難。那麽,我們應該不要飛機嗎?」

2) 亞洲的社會不公平應該達到什麽程度?

許多中國人和印度人以涓滴理論(trickle- down theory)作為增長戰略的基礎,也就是認為「超級富豪階層的出現會使所有人受益」。但是,和西方一樣,亞洲人也在質疑這種自由放任的理論。

盎格魯-撒克遜(Anglo-Saxon)模式的優勢十分明顯。它鼓勵創新、個人自由,但它的缺陷是多變、對員工殘酷,並且在經濟低迷時會產生很大的破壞力。相較之下北歐社會資本主義採高稅收、相對平等、較少發生盛衰循環的制度,也達成了均富。在亞洲,只有日本和韓國有點接近這一模式。

亞洲人現在或許能從美國和歐洲的困境中獲得一些愉悅,但別忘了,亞洲唯一接近美國生活水準的國家,就是上世紀80年代末、90年代初的日本,而在日本鞏固優勢地位之前,經濟就陷入了停滯。中國建立了在貧窮國家實現高增長的機制,但它並不能保證,中國能夠在不對其進行大修的情況 下,趕上西方的生活水準。

毫 無疑問,在資本主義的廣泛定義內,政府可大可小;它可以施加更多干預,也可以減少計劃。在亞洲許多國家,這些政策選擇尚有待討論。不過,在選擇的壓力猛然增大時,大多數人都信服資本主義,並且,在缺乏更好選擇的情況下,希望提高人民收入水準的國家,將只能依賴某種形式的資本主義。

「如果你審視一下中國,會看到資本主義的市場機制和激勵的力量確實得到顯現。一些資本主義的要素顯然是必不可少的。」李昌庸表示。

【網摘與綜合評論】

中國實行的市場經濟和國家壟斷相結合的「國家資本主義」,就是既要鼓勵競爭和創新又要適當控制經濟。國企利用國家的資本使用農民工、勞務工來獲取利潤,發展GDP。要知道印度的貧富差距比中國要大得多,市場競爭卻又遠不及中國來的徹底。

因此我們不該把市場經濟看成資本主義的單一形式,然後老是談論資本主義危機,而忽略監管的重要性。

歐元區成立之匆忙,很多具體規則都沒有制訂,希臘這綠皮車掛在動車組上,能不跑廢嗎?像瑞典芬蘭挪威這些AAA評級的國家也是高福利的但是經濟依然看好;德國有著嚴肅財經紀律的國家,就業率不降反升。英國使用英鎊非歐元,但是他的財政赤字還是那麽高達到一萬億英鎊,這完全是自身財政紀律的問題,能說是歐元的錯嗎?所以說不能把歐洲個別國家財政問題導致的危機看成資本主義的危機。

全球糧食,石油,礦產等等資源需要資本去購買。資本主義的真正危機在於隨著人口日益增多,以上稀缺的資源卻越來越集中到某些人某些集團手中。

資本主義仍是放縱人性惡一面。沒有人對貪欲,對權力、名譽、地位、金錢、美女的追求,人類社會就很難取得進步。但是只有自由放任的利己主義,會導致社會達爾文主義:華爾街強者致富,多數弱者無奈與貧困。國家自上而下對此加以調整,這就是所謂改革。如果國家也站在強者一 邊,改革的調整之路不通,結局是自下而上的(暴力)革命性調整。這也是理想化的共產主義運動得以在19世紀末20世紀前半葉興盛的原因。

資本主義是金融為主導,社會主義是以經濟為主導。金融重的是結果(效益最大化),經濟是過程(效率最大化),兩者有著根本的不同,相互學習是最好的辦法。什麽主義只是一個代號,它的實質才是重要的。「效率」和「公平」這兩個對經濟社會至關重要的目標,應該成為當代中國調整一切大政方針的參照系。一個 社會,大凡效率太低時,就會犧牲一點公平來提高效率;如果公平不足時,就會犧牲一點效率來增強公平。

當前中國讓資源集中在國家手裡來分配給民生、醫保,但弊端則如「油價定價機制」、「官老闆趕走煤老闆」、「國企貸款低息,民企要高利貸」、「改革初期官員下海,現在老闆上岸」這些… 共產主義政策下官本位導致的特權階層,形成吳敬璉先生說的官僚權貴資本主義。 西方國家的政府監管和中國最大的不同在於,西方並不存在大量掌握國民經濟命脈的國有企業,政府的監管也不會直接有利於國有企業形成行業壟斷和利益集團。

西方政府的監管和干涉的目的在於處理市場分配社會財富不均,而中國政府由於綁定了國有企業巨無霸,每一次的監管反而會加大社會不公。西方資本主義在民主體制下允許民眾建立反對派,針對弊病進行自我修復,這不能不引起中國執政黨的反思,即如何糾正道路上所犯的錯誤,如果沒有這個糾錯器,這個社會還是相當危險的!
中國雖打著社會主義的旗號,卻沒有社會主義的特徵,所以說這是個奇怪的現象。中國的左右派和西方的劃分不一樣,中國的左派更具有右派的特徵,而在中國被打為「反革命」的右派反是具左派社會公平正義精神的運動人士。民國時期的民族主義反共,但現在的民族主義者卻站在共產黨的一邊,這恰恰說明瞭其保守威權的反革命性質。

重新發現資本主義

作者:秘魯經濟學家 赫爾南多•德•索托

世界經濟如同鐘錶、飛機等精密器械,是由許多細小部件組成的。它們組合成複雜的整體,整體價值越高,經濟增長得就越多。人類的成就,都源自將人員和事物連結在一起。

麽西方資本主義在過去150年向我們提供最好的知識來探索各種經濟組合。我們不需要重新思索、重新發明資本主義;而只需要重新發現資本主義。

過去五年裡美歐信貸和資本收縮的原因在於,識別和組合不同部件所需的功利主義工具理性,已在不經意間遭到破壞。誰在承擔風險的非標準化及分散的記錄遭到掩蓋;企業的經營狀況的表外會計操作遭到掩蓋:這些問題加大了信任(然後據以組合)的難度。只要這種知識體系得不到修復,美國和歐洲的資本主義就不會康復。

這不是一場金融危機,而是一場知識危機。資本主義存在於兩個世界中,一個是看得見的世界,由棕櫚樹和巴拿馬型船組成,另一個則是由法律和檔案所包含的產權資訊構成的。正是後者讓我們對現實的碎片進行組織,並加以理解,然後以創造性的方式將它們組合起來。

後者被建構於19世紀中葉,當時歐美改革者總結出,舊體制遺留的分散、無方向的經濟資訊,不能解決困擾早期資本主義的經濟衰退。於是,改革者創建了「產權記錄體系」,用來記錄關於資產的所有相關知識,無論是無形資產(股票、專利、本票)還是有形資產(土地、建築物、機器),並將其保存在受規則約束、經過認證、並可公開查閱的登記處、所有權記錄和賬目中。

藉著這些公共檔案,投資者能夠找到供應商、推斷價值、承擔風險,然後將簡單的東西組合起來(套用一個著名的例子,將斯裡蘭卡的石墨和俄勒岡州的木材組合起來,製造鉛筆)。

改革者還幫助解決了捆綁問題(the binding problem)。這個形而上學問題影響所有學科:生理學家發現,將細胞捆綁起來、形成器官以執行特定的復雜功能 的,是一種如今被稱為DNA的核酸。產權記載背後的邏輯,正是資本主義的DNA,即找到將各個部件組合起來所需的資訊。

現代的檔案系統已經從記錄孤立資產的數據倉庫,演化為提供知識的事實工廠,企業家需要這些知識對資產、技能、技術和資金進行組合,生產出更為複雜和有價值的產品。這種知識使得西方經濟在第二次世界大戰後的增長幅度,超過此前的2000年,而且並未出現大規模的信貸收縮。

直到2008年,我們才開始得知產權記錄體系已經不再說明真相,原因包括:表外會計操作;將債務隱藏在報表的腳註中或「特殊目的實體」(special purpose entity)的賬簿中;把按揭貸款綁定公共檔案處沒有列明的證券,以進行融資;以及國家通過將債務替換為另一種貨幣,將其包裝成收入。無怪乎金融機構和投資者對制度喪失了信心。

過去15年裡,西方資本主義的產權記錄體系已經貶值,讓政府脫離了事實,無法確定需要如何調整,也讓企業無法瞭解風險在哪裡。

西方資本主義的優越性,並不在於提供一種創造財富的公式,而在於其產權記錄體系,它是對誰擁有土地、勞動力、信用、資本和技術,以及這些資產之間有何種關系,怎樣重新組合可以產生效益的相關資訊進行檢索、選擇和驗證的產物。西方資本主義要想恢復元氣,就必須將目前游離於金融創新的灰暗世界、失去控制的數萬億美元財富,納入法治和公共記錄的範圍。這項任務需要很強的政治領導力。

【網摘與綜合評論】

金融不可能完全透明,其競爭仍然涉及到技術和細節的保密。但它需要在那些必要的部分透明(比如上市的那些 資料真實性,比如在海外避稅問題上的角色問題,比如對投資者的資金使用的風險控制問題,兜售產品時候的誠信問題)。

此外,它還需要負責。對沖基金經理能直接對客戶負責,但其他的金融機構的產品設計和業務運作太過複雜,使金融機構的客戶或者投資者完全仰賴對機構的信任,只能股票散戶一樣處處被動。

資本主義絕非歷史終點

作者:前歐洲央行理事會成員、德國法蘭克福大學金融研究中心總裁 奧特馬爾•伊辛

當柏林牆倒塌、“鐵幕”被拉開之際,觀察家們見證了資本主義戰勝共產主義,自由市場戰勝中央計劃體制,民主戰勝獨裁,哈耶克(Hayek)戰勝馬克思(Marx), 法蘭西斯•福山(Francis Fukuyama)甚至宣稱,歷史到達了終點站—,資本主義已經巔峰、無可替代。

錯了。雖然「現實社會主義」的實驗至今都以災難收場,但歷史告訴我們,承諾實現平等的左派思想永遠不會消失。歷史決定論是福山觀點中最為荒謬的一面。自由主義哲學家決不會接受歷史的發展是預先註定的觀點。

自冷戰結束以來,各種不同的社會組織方式繼續爭奇鬥艷。社會主義仍承受著過去失敗經歷的致命打擊。因此,如今基本上只有草根抗議活動中能夠看到社會主義的身影,比如「占領運動」。這場運動如何才能實現目標仍然沒有任何眉目,它所涉及的眾多問題都包含著一個核心因素:抨擊金融業。

意外的是,這場金融市場危機這麽長時間,才爆發了一場大規模運動。

為防止金融體系崩潰而實施幹預的做法,不僅嚴重削弱了人們對金融市場的信心,也動搖了人們對整體市場經濟的信心。當一家金融機構發展到過於龐大、 關系過於複雜,以致其償付能力可能威脅金融體系的穩定時,政治家必須進行幹預。「大到不能倒」的問題導致社會(更確切地說是納稅人)不得不為個別金融機構的生存埋單。

這動搖了自由市場的基石。市場經濟賴以存在的原則是:在法律制度規定的界限內,個人享有充分的自由。這項原則鼓勵個人利用各種機會,並對風險加以評估。就釋放個人的潛力而言,沒有一種制度能與市場經濟媲美。正如哈耶克所言,市場是最佳的發現機制:成功者得利潤;而虧損者必須承擔後果,直到破產。因此,「大到不能倒」現象破壞了市場經濟的基本原則,即自由主義的責任制。我們得問,金融業活動究竟在多大程度上增進了社會的福祉?它們對於充滿活力的經濟來說是不可或缺的嗎?

因此政府正面臨的挑戰,將是建設可信的監管機制、提高資本要求和提高透明度,使金融業不再被認為對社會有害的活動,提供有益的服務。

資本主義需要轉型,歷史尚未終結。

【網摘與綜合評論】

所有的「現實社會主義」的失敗都體現在其比資本主義更加(泛)資本【尤其包括權利作為資本形態體現在其社會活動中】本位;而所有的資本主義相對而言的蓬勃 活力都體現在其更符合社會的多維度立體化的需求。馬克思錯誤的把公平篡改成平等來無縫對接其更具野心的階級鬥爭理論,而恰恰是「公平」比「平等」更符合正義。社會主義應該是社會異質化、多維度立體式的需求為本位的。社會主義理應是比資本主義更加公平、更加民主。而「現實社會主義」實際上遠遠地偏離了此項基本原則,獨裁與專制導致所謂社會主義不過成為了統治階級手中的工具。公平與平等不應劃分階級與階層,民主的權利應當給予所有公民。而這需要建立在公民素養和善的信仰之上。

民選政治家無所作為是因為,民眾大抵是自私短視的,當遇到較大危機需要抉擇時,選民們更支持符合自己短期利益的代言人,雖然政治精英完全明白應該如何選擇政策方向,但迫於選民壓力也只能選擇目光短淺的政策行為。民主選舉有諸多的優點,但在體制上出現問題需要修正時卻不能大刀闊斧,只能通過周而復始的硬著陸來自我修正,這也許是民選的弊端。

資本主義也只有是重商主義、資本本位主義的實質才使得金融界必然的發展到今天這樣,並形成了對整個經濟活動起到支配地位。因為貪婪是人的本性,作者希望金融業承認其部分業務確實是多餘、甚至是危險的,就好比要求金融資本家承認並放棄貪婪,這有意義嗎?恰恰是這些在作者看來多餘甚至危險的金融衍生產品、大型的期貨市場投機、國際外匯市場投機這些金融業務,才是以華爾街為首的金融資本家發明的吸金大法。且其巨大的財富效應將全世界越來越多的最頂尖的知識精英吸引進這個圈子,然後這些知識精英在設計出更為精巧更為隱蔽「欺騙性更強」的金融產品,這種畸形惡性發展的現代金融業是現代經濟的癌症。

資本主義就是剝削,不是它戰勝了社會主義,而只是證明帶有烏托邦幻想式的利他主義不符合人性。哈耶克代表不了資本主義,他也戰勝不了馬克思。反而是馬克思的資本論在原始資本主義急需變革的危機關頭為西方原始的資本主義進化方向的坐標,一手促成了現代資本主義的誕生。西方社會在二戰過後,邁入第二期(帝國主義)和第三期的資本主義(新自由主義),於是汲取社會主義之長,加強工會力量、醫保社保等等措施,並把剝削的對象轉向第三世界。

20世紀80年代後,全球化的擴展與深化、資本的深化、技術的深化、分工的深化等等,極大地改變了人類的生產方式與生存狀態。全球化背景下的資本主義危機,不只是特定經濟體範圍內的體制性危機,而是彌散於全球的制度危機。一方面,全球化消彌了商品生產、消費,資源配置與財富分配的界線;另一方面,經濟的交融與滲透,意識形態彌散化、多元化,全球範圍內的資源爭奪常態化,政治分歧遮蓋了經濟利益分歧,如此種種,難求其解。在全球化的視野裡,如何處理政府與市場的關係、民主與集權的關系等問題,仍然會因為利益出發點的分歧,使全球協同行動無法達成。只能透過敬畏上帝帶來的智慧與復興、人心道德復甦來解答。

至今,人類有過多的潛力無法發揮出來,這便像一個龐大的油田,能量不可估計。如果具備了客觀的條件,誰能引導這種能量,誰必然可以引導人類歷史的走向,同時,社會的形態也必然會有一個大的躍進。認識這一點,不是要讓這個社會去寄託一個人,而是這個時代必須一同尋求神。

回應: 「謝玲:Makiyo 的沉淪,妳.我都曾推過一把!」-論厚德載物的社會中積極自由的個人

Source Link of Original Post:  http://tinyurl.com/6nfudwl

FB網友「謝玲」以過去自身接觸年輕藝人的經驗,寫下「Makiyo 的沉淪,妳.我都曾推過一把!」一文。這篇文章是公開的,發文頭一天24小時不到,轉貼次數就已經突破一萬次,引起的讀者共鳴不計其數。

文章中她表明自己對「正義魔人」那種「真誠的偽善」特質不以為然,說白了事件至今所謂社會道德監督只是一群網誌裡貼淫照、愛看下流節目的現代法利賽人對著一個「淫婦」的出醜瘋狂落井下石。她沒有認為應該輕饒加害者,但在文章最後提醒大家就自己對公民道德(civic virtue)沒有好好守護愛護的問題,多多地省思。這部分還是挺有耶穌的精神,大家讀了都很有感觸。

然而就我各轉貼該文的好友評論中,對作者論點的評價卻有兩極:一說好文,一說廢文

雖說廢文絕對不至於,但追究不認同者的立論,謝玲的為文邏輯我以為有三點值得深入追究:現象、界限、與目標。(立場當然有討論的空間,但我要論述的個人立場不是針對性的,希望原作者有機會閱讀時千萬不要覺得有必須回應說明的壓力。)

這三點我會循著三組對照的概念加以區分並切入論述。

一是低文化(low culture)和高文化(high culture)的實然與應然;

二是「道德問題」和「法律問題」:一是道德底線上(morally permissible)一是道德底線下(morally impermissible);

三則是從「不自由」到「新自由」到「後自由」。

  • 第一.現象是什麼?

謝玲說:

我目前所經營的踢踏舞團,經常因為舞者不是"辣妹",或者不能著"肚皮舞孃"的清涼服裝而被"退貨";廠商寧願把"SHOW GIRLS"送來臨時抱佛腳,隨便學兩招充數,都不要技術高超的舞者;你說這全是廠商的錯嗎?資訊展的時候,哪裡有露腿露胸的正妹,哪裡就有鎂光燈和人潮 ———這樣美眉們何必學才藝?不如花錢去整型或上夜店跟演藝圈攀關係,還比較快紅! 純藝術文化的節目,票房和收視都很淒涼,這到底是誰的錯? 現在還有誰在乎藝人有沒有學養和氣質?

1)      社會大眾愛好美色與低俗文化(low culture),而非高雅藝術(high culture),這是庶民文化的特性。只能制度性地調撥資源來改善,例如讓政府獎勵補助宣揚善念的優質文創,或現下NCC對低俗媒體內容的取締等。然而臺灣是自由民主的社會,一旦上層制度對道德的監督太強,難保不會倒退成為集權社會。今天臺灣許多品味低俗的政論、綜藝和談話節目受到中國大陸網友喜愛,不單是因為它們迎合了市井庶民的調性(vulgarity; 姑且稱之為「未經高雅文化薰陶的天性」),更因為它展現了自由開放和多元,比中共國家電視台娛樂節目的正經死板更得人心。

我不是要說自己也擁抱多元主義中取向低俗的價值觀,但是根據多元性的自由選擇是一個現實,「選擇權」是民主社會中是必須被捍衛的權力。謝玲認為既然大家透過手上的遙控器和錢包裡的鈔票選擇了低俗,今日就必須共同分擔面對公民道德的崩壞。這點我完全同意。但是低文化成為主流市場取向是「實然」(descriptively speaking- what it is now),而高文化是「應然」(prescriptively speaking- what it ought to be)。這點必須區分清楚,一個社會是否應當追求高文化以作為其「善」之目的(end),大家有不同意見。而就算在贊同者中,要用什麼手段(means)把整體社會向高文化提升,每個人的看法也不一致。

這就進入第二點和第三點:目標與方向

  • 第二.界限是什麼?

謝玲說:

有位宅男名嘴啊,你在痛批Makiyo的同時,有沒有想一想,你的部落格不也長期使用許多辣妹照在"餵養”你的讀者嗎?主辦單位花錢找代言人的時候,審核 代言人資格的標準在哪裡? 不也是圖著Makiyo的性感形象能吸睛嗎?Makiyo向來都不是清純派的吧?到底是誰比較墮?如果這位藝人如大家所指責的那麼"無恥",又為何能搶版 面,搶收視率並且走紅? 到底是哪些人那麼愛看辣妹? 電視上把胸部都擺在牌桌上的賭博節目播那麼久,有沒有人抗議過?低俗節目的製作人,你又有甚麼資格叫Makiyo退出演藝圈? 唱片公司每當偶像藝人出Trouble時不都是說謊或花錢掩蓋事實來維護形象?闖禍的話題藝人還可以抬高價碼賺一票咧!現在反倒大言不慚地批評Makiyo說謊,說電視生態光怪陸離,到底自己清高到哪裡去?我看也不過是趁機叫罵,好讓自己紅而已 ,真正的敗類又是誰?

2)      我想進一步在這裡指出:川島茉樹代這次不是因為裸露和喝酒的道德風化問題受到輿論撻伐。自由主義下的台灣社會已經慣於將這些看做是私德問題。輿論在意的是「暴力」、「肇事逃逸」、「扯謊」等直接與刑事罪責相關的議題。這說明一個自由多元社會下的道德底線:你可以喝酒喝醉、你可以穿得像拍三級片談鹹濕話題,但你不可以喝醉打人(題外話:這起打人事件應沒人喝醉,都是意識清醒自主下的犯行)、你不可以作偽證說自己沒動手非當事人還誣陷對方襲胸。

謝玲的這篇文章透露了一個邏輯模糊地帶:社會需不需要為沒有抵制夜店文化、色情文化,而對川島茉樹代一行人的犯行扛道德責任呢?

我認為需要也不需要。茉樹代一行四人都是成年人,當然應為自主行為負責。社會或有鼓吹辣妹美女最吸睛,但知性和才德的第一夫人也不能說完全沒有公眾市場。

是,制度有錯、社會有錯。華爾街不成比例的高薪酬使潛在的年輕優秀科研人才,個個成了導致金融市場崩盤的邪惡操盤手。但經濟誘因不能和「惡行」本身的道德問題混為一談。川島茉樹代不是被「推坑」的,她不是被強迫而別無選擇去沈淪,沒有人「推她一把」;華爾街操盤手不是被「推坑」的, 他在七萬美金的科研工作和三十萬美金的金融業間選了後者,肇因是貪欲。七萬美金年薪不是不夠養家,但他因為喪失了理想,所以順從了貪欲。川島茉樹代或許最初有養家還債的理由而選擇出道,然而在夜店追逐紙醉金迷的生活,談論傷風敗俗的話題也能用這個當藉口嗎?

更況且,如我前面所提及,現下的自由主義(liberalism)概念中還蘊含了一定程度的自由至上主義(libertarianism)和人性自我觀。自由至上主義者可以將道德問題和法律問題完完全全地切割開:一個先生可以對妻子百般地精神折磨,但一旦妻子憤怒崩潰持刀弒夫,她就是以殺人罪論處,責無旁貸。她的自由意志既然沒有被剝奪,就要為這個「自由選擇」負全責。

換句話說,法律問題面對的是社會上無法許可的道德底線(morally impermissible),謝玲文章關注的社會風化則是底線上的道德開放空間(morally permissible)。想要重新劃定這個空間的疆界,就一定得更動自由主義的社會契約。

因此除非現行的社會制度框架有所改動,否則無論宅神的網誌文章貼再多女模女星性感照片,要論述他對川島茉樹代糜爛生活型態的道義責任,咱們都不具備正當性基礎-遑論必須對川島茉樹代在「施暴事件」中自主越界行為給什麼交代(accountability)了。

  • 第三.目標是什麼?

3)      如果上面的分析使你良心躁動,卻還沒能尋找到推翻的切入點的話,那麼讓我坦白承認:這個新自由主義社會就是這麼病態。新自由主義社會是病態的,因為它型塑了一個大環境,僅僅鼓吹所謂的「消極自由」(negative freedom: to be free from any constraint),卻否定「積極自由」(positive freedom: free for a telos, a goal, a virtue of faith, and God)的價值。

當這社會上的年輕人一個個喪失理想、沒有呼召和遠向,卸責給環境成為一種常用的托詞,甚至精神病的說法也很流行(參照余祥銓事件和中指蕭事件),這些都不過是反應這世代靈魂的軟弱、空虛的現況。這個公眾美德(civic virtue)的內蘊被淘空的現象,在社會學有一詞形容為:「赤裸/被扒光的公眾領域」(naked public square)。

反之,一個年輕人心中抓住所被賦予的積極自由,就能克服環境的低谷和雜音,不輕易地把「沈淪」和「崩潰」的說詞掛在嘴上。這些人像是:用戰鬥般的熱血信念從事文創的九把刀、為上帝發光打球的林書豪(Jeremy Lin)、愛在西非連加恩、20出頭已半生投入公益的沈芯菱、四肢殘疾卻長了天使翅膀飛到世界各個角落綻放溫暖與盼望的Nick Vujicic

如果我們希望這種精神能被發揚和擴展,我們的公眾領域互動型態將需要從新自由的 naked public square 轉型進入後自由(post-liberal)的sacred public square。讓「積極自由」成為主導的社會風氣,幫助年輕人尋找建造精神文明和美德所需的信仰和方向。(另文中繼續闡述其內涵。)

回到謝玲文章中一開頭的生動描述,畫面就像小樹發芽般:

過去我在唱片圈工作時,唱片公司總會把港星.馬來西亞歌手和ABC藝人送來讓我矯正國語發音;大約13年前,福茂唱片總監李亞明也委託我為一位台日混血的美少女—–川島茉樹代上 正音課程: 當時還在日僑學校就讀的Makiyo帶了新穎的日本文具, 很認真地用彩色水墨筆將上課內容的重點畫記在可愛的筆記本上,雖然反覆練習中文的雙母音和開口音(日語中沒有的發音)時,會嬌氣地說:好難~~喔!但仍乖乖地跟著我練習…………Makiyo終於在亞明的認真打造之下,以"輕搖滾"的日本美眉之姿出了第一張唱片,也因代言PANASONIC手機,在廣告影片 中可愛溜滑板的模樣受到大家的注意….

臺灣民眾真的必須從這起事件的負面撻伐聲浪中迅速抽身、更宏觀地去尋求能為人心帶來積極能量的曙光。假使真的是我們的社會捧紅了演藝圈中的「魔術代」又將之揮棄為「垃圾袋」並葬送,至少我衷心地企盼改變:往後我們社會各個角落被塑造的年輕苗子,將會是一個個擁有呼召(calling)和正確信念、被信仰所灌溉的希望世代

[文摘] 曾慶豹:晚期資本主義與解放神學的重建

前言:本文為曾慶豹在教授中原大學教授解放神學專題的授課綱要。*

Liberation Day
Image by Photochiel via Flickr

原文經本人重新編輯,有段落重整、文意的補充和釐清,或許展現代表個人觀點之處。

* 與其相關的有論文 曾慶豹,2003 〈晚期資本主義與解放神學的重建〉,北京《基督教文化學刊》第九期。以及曾慶豹國科會研究計畫:「晚期資本主義與解放神學烏托邦」 (NSC 90-2411-H-033-004)

——————————————-
本課程將朝以一系列的現代性議程,批判地重建解放神學,以每一年一個子題研究為主,分別逐年處理:

  1. 一、 晚期資本主義的問題;
  2. 二、 公共領域與解放神學;
  3. 三、 溝通行動的批判理論與解放神學。[1]

i.

正如學者所理解的,馬克思有一種懷疑的詮釋學(Juan Luis Segundo,The Liberation of Theology,New York: Orbis Book,1975),它使神學清醒地意識到經濟和政治生活是如何的箝制著人的一切,包括信仰生活和價值關懷。通過這項工具,解放神學分析「社會和神學」之關聯,確立批判性的神學觀點。

解放神學源生於拉丁美洲的社會政治情境,是一種處境化的反省。它與馬克思的思想關懷,就是關注受資本主義壓迫下的人,即貧窮人的解放(Gustavo Gutierrez,The Poor and the Church in Latin America,London: CIIR,1984:17)。

然而一切處境化的反省都必須針對處境的改變做出調整,往往這種改變使解放神學在普遍性的宣稱方面飽受批評,使神學喪失了其基本之性格。如何在這樣變動處境的調整中,持續地把握其內容和精神的普遍性、建立其神學基本性格,即成為解放神學當前的課題。

在這個基礎下,我們認為解放神學若要成為一門具有批判活力的神學,需要的不僅是實踐的批判,還要有來自理論的批判。如同後馬克思種種理論重建和發展,哈伯瑪斯提出「歷史唯物論的重建」(Zur Rekonstruttion des Historischen Materialismus,Frankfurt,1973:12),把社會中個體互動的理解,落實到思考溝通行動中極富成果的法律和道德之作用。解放神學所倡導的懷疑詮釋學若能借重哈伯瑪斯完成這個轉向,從勞動的批判成了互動的批判,就能建設其批判神學的基本性格。

ii.

根據曼特爾(Ernest Mandel)的理解,我們當前社會所尊奉的新自由主義是一種「晚期資本主義」(late capitalism)的經濟型態。「晚期」意味著資本主義經歷一系列結構之變化,從古典自由主義的市場資本主義到列寧定義的帝國主義時期的壟斷資本主義,到現在新自由主義主導的跨國、商品消費的晚期資本主義。(Der Spaetkapitalismus,Frankfurt,1972: 第十七章)。

「晚期資本主義」(新自由主義)有別於馬克思經典論述中的資本主義,解放神學針對它的批判應該取徑於一條不同於階級分析的意識形態分析,積極進入新左派的著重的「合法性問題」。

如哈伯瑪斯哈伯瑪斯在《晚期資本主義的合法性危機》(Legitimationsprobleme im Spaetkapitalismus,Frankfurt,1973)所說,晚期資本主義已成為了受國家調節的資本主義,形成系統的壟斷。哈伯瑪斯與曼特爾,認為「科技」,而非「階級矛盾」,才是晚期資本主義的意識形態危機的根源:「階級利益的矛盾變成了系統指令之間的矛盾」(S.59)。

詹明信(Fredroc Jameson)在《後現代主義,或晚期資本主義文化邏輯》(Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism,1991)進一步認為,導致這種合法性問題的是以文化為主導的因素,稱「社會文化邏輯」。本計劃將以合法性問題和文化主導因素作為理解晚期資本主義的一個理論面向,以作為對解放神學的理論重建之工作。

iii.

拉丁美洲解放神學作為「對基督教實踐的批判性反省」(A Theology of Liberation,p.13),關注歷史過程中的政治和經濟之解放。然而其最大的特色與限制,在於過份依賴傳統馬克思主義,仍把資本主義理解為階級性的貧窮問題,所以把神學的革命寄望於馬克思式的階級對立。

直到古鐵熱在1988年修定其1971年所著的《解放神學》一書時發現:「馬克思主義以經濟為基礎的方法決定論,完全與支持解放神學結構這類社會分析相異」(p.249),甚至不贊同把解放神學理解為革命神學。然而古鐵熱仍未能進入制度化的反省(p.250)。他未能說明馬克思的侷限,關鍵在於他忽略了其批判對象—資本主義—的進化。謝根道同樣將資本社會現況只理解為曼特爾所言的第二期帝國資本主義,對「晚期資本主義」欠缺重新定向的實然分析,使使其解放神學批判只能困限於「靈性(神修)」的實踐。[2]

社會學的分析進一步影響到解放神學的人類學。受到馬克思主義把資本主義剝削視為異化的深刻影響,解放神學無一例外仍抱持「本質論」的人類學(Juan Luis Segundo,Faith and Ideologies,New York: Maryknoll,1984:p.240),其解放議程過份專注在恢愎那業已失落的人性,結果就是把「消除異化」的救贖方案擴大為與資本主義完全的對立。

但是根據哈伯瑪斯的想法,資本主義的扭曲主是表現為一種「以系統代替語言」的危機,對它的批判必須指出其合法性問題。

我們認為卻化解解放神學的難題,唯有經過一種「語言轉向」的努力,這項努力的前提來自於把人與上帝的關係看為是一種語言互動的關係,而不是抽象的理解為一種與物質相對立的靈性互動。

一種新的解放神學必須超越二元性對立,從互為主體性的團契互動中真正釋放出批判的潛力,亦即「教會作為一個語言性的互動團契」的實踐道路。(曾慶豹,《上帝、關係與言說》,台北:五南,2000:頁26以下)

iv.

毫無疑問的,近代解放神學仍然能藉著成種族、性別等的解放釋放出傳統階級論述之外的新活力,(p.xxiii),然而它若要「將自身從政治經濟學的視角解放」[3],就必須超越來自於生產典範之下以抽象的「人性」之本質為基礎的批判,代之以後/新馬克思主義為其分析的方法和框架,批判系統化扭曲(systematically distorted)的科技主義,並為解放神學導向一種以溝通行動(communicative action)為典範的後自由神學作準備。[4]

迄今為止,任何一種政治神學要是忽略了當代資本主義的問題,將不能解釋社會和信仰關聯性,或者無法提出一套社會批判的神學構思,也將無力於提出其實踐的目標。

當代資本主義的社會文化危機,在於它越來越不能為資本主義提供行動動機的意義,生產和行政系統無法產生出意義。「解放」作為晚期資本主義時的神學批判的共同語言,已經不再是拉丁美洲神學的專利,因此勢必需要思考並競爭合法性的問題。解放神學應對比貧窮的問題更為根本的合法性進行追問來形成對系統的壓力,從信仰的價值中提取意義的資源,實現一種非強制性規範效力的後自由社會(天國社群)。[5]

本課程之教學大綱:
一、解放神學的淵源

  • 世俗與上帝:潘霍華論「及齡的世界」(讀《獄中書簡》、《倫理學》)
  • 私人化宗教的批判:默茨的政治神學(讀《在歷史和社會中的信仰》)
  • 解放與歷史哲學:布洛赫與無神論者的希望(讀《希望的原則》)
  • 人的解放:莫特曼論十字架神學(讀《被釘十字架的上帝》)

二、解放神學的內涵

  • 解放神學的緣起及其各種面向:處境化問題(讀Gutierrez《解放神學》、武金正《解放神學》)
  • 解放神學的聖經資源(讀布魯克門《先知的想像》、《舊約的社會閱讀》)
  • 解放神學與詮釋學:方法論(讀Segundo《解放的神學》第一章)
  • 解放神學與馬克思主義:拉美與帝國資本主義(讀Miguez-Bonino《基督教與拉丁美洲的解放神學》)

三、解放神學的重建

  • 問題的轉向與重建:晚期資本主義的問題(讀Habermas《合法性危機》)
  • 解放神學與批判理論(讀曾慶豹《上帝、關係與言說》第五章)
  • 以公共為言說的解放神學(讀Tracy《想像的類比》)
  • 解放神學與溝通行動的神學(讀Peukert《科學、行動與基礎神學》)

[1]我們可以清楚地看到,這三個主題事實上即是以哈伯瑪斯(Juergen Habermas)思想作為與解放神學交互整合的工作,所以,總的方向應該是〈哈伯瑪斯的批判理論與解放神學之重建〉。哈伯瑪斯是我(曾慶豹)在博士論文時研究的對象,事實上,這方面的基本工作在拙著《上帝、關係與言說》第三章「道路、真理、生命—溝通行動的神學」一文中已初步的展開,本系列的計劃將朝向與解放神學 進行批判性對話。

[2] 「正如馬克思所強調的,生產方式或具體的經濟結構不能僅僅從生產材料的結構方面來理解。它也應理解為由上述生產方式生產工具的應用所產生的『人與人的關係』,這種來自生產並對生產發生重要影響的人與人的關係包括許多因素,其中有許多我們可以確切稱之為精神的因素」(p.180)謝根道(Juan Luis Segundo)在精神和物質的二元分析中進行其所謂神學解放,使其神學更靠向於黑格爾而不是馬克思,它的結果又將使神學退回到靈性,解放成了一個(唯心主義)抽象的範疇(pp.180-185)。

[3]按:曾慶豹這裡似乎認為屬於後殖民主義、女性主義等的「文化馬克斯主義」,仍侷限於政治經濟學的基礎視角、並持有抽象人性觀。個人認為非常不精準。這一支系新馬克斯主義與其說

仍然在追求一種柏拉圖式的形象恢復,大部分種族和性別論述所展現的都是從後結構進入解構的性格。廣泛說來,這套思想的第一步是要釐清權力的的本像(傅柯與後結構),第二步是呈現權力虛無的本質(德希達與解構),第三步便是充分釋放這個虛無的權力給所有人,以作為每個人存在的權利(羅逖與新實用主義)。對後自由神學倫理學的建設還必須要遏止這種崩壞趨勢才行。那這樣根植於聖經啟示的三一本體論就是不可或缺的基礎建設。

[4] 「將解放神學導向於溝通行動的神學」不是全新的論題,過往已有作者從事於相關此一領域之研究,如Margaret M. Campbell的Critical Theory and Liberation Theology: A Comparison of the Initial Work of Juergen Habermas and Gustavo Gutierrez,New York: Peter Lang,1999,可惜並不成功。本計劃將包含相關文獻回顧和檢討。)另外,輔仁大學宗教系武金正教授在他的《解放神學:脈絡的詮釋》一書中(第五章第二、三節),已精闢地論述了解放神學與哈伯瑪斯思想之間相互整合的可能性,不過武教授是直接的進入哈氏後期的溝通行動理論中作出探討,我的工作則往後追溯,回到哈氏對於「歷史唯物主義的重建」中,尤其是以晚期資本主義此一脈絡為探討的起點和問題意識。

[5]政治的革命或鬥爭並不是實現解放的真正手段,正如解放神學對於人性解放和罪的解救不是通過暴力的手段獲得,然而關鍵就在於如何從生產典範改變成互動典範。解放神學抽象的以「愛」作為對冷漠、仇恨、不公義的克服(A Theology of Liberation,p.85),其道成肉身的實踐能動性顯然及不上後自由神學從教會的共契(solidarity)重建社會的觀點。教會即是一個「溝通的社群」(曾慶豹, 《上帝、關係與言說》,頁170-171),在溝通中實現如哈伯瑪斯所言的「上帝變成了一種溝通結構的名稱」 (S.113)。教會對系統化和結構化社會的批判、參與,以及實踐,是建立在超驗的語言互動(具有不可共量性的神學敘事),而非生產勞動(社會運動)。

Book Review: Paul among the Postliberals

Source Link: http://www.amazon.com/Paul-among-Postliberals-Douglas-Harink/product-reviews/158743041X/ref=dp_top_cm_cr_acr_txt?ie=UTF8&showViewpoints=1

Cover of "Paul among the Postliberals"

On Amazon.com, theologicalresearcher "theologicalresearcher" (Canada) has a helpful summarizing review of Douglas Harink’s Paul among the Postliberals. The book contains five long chapters: 1) Justification; 2) Apocalypse; 3) Politics; 4) Israel; and 5) Culture. In each of these chapters, Harink tries to develop how well-known postliberal theologians have understood Paul differently from traditional protestant perspective.

Chapter One: Justification.

Postliberal scholars such as Karl Barth, John Howard Yoder, and Stanley Hauerwas overturns the traditional Protestant paradigms of Pauline theological themes such as the pessimistic anthropology of Lutheran and Reformed thoughts, the "faith IN Christ" interpretation (cf. Gal 2:16), the negative view of the law, and the highly forensic nature of justification.

Postliberals believe that justification has more to do with "empowerment" than "acquittal" [p. 44].

>

Chapter Two: Apocalypse.

According to Hauerwas, Paul’s main concern in Galatians  was to create a new eschatological people which marks themselves off from the unbelieving world. The contrast between faith and works is not to set them in opposition, but to affirm the "singularity of the gospel" over against all other loyalties (religious or political).

>
Chapter Three: Politics.

This chapter deals with the political theology of Paul and Yoder. The church by its theological nature is a political body ready for particular action in and for this world. Jesus’ call for cross-bearing is more than personal discipleship; it marks the disciples as a new community.

>

Chapter Four: Israel.

This chapter deals with the highly controversial issue of physical Israel in the place of redemptive history. Here we have the supersessionist N. T. Wright who thinks the church replaces the Israel and the non-supercessionist Yoder who reads the church and the Israel together to represent the 24 elders in the Revelation vision.

Harink attempts to show the errors of Wright’s supersessionism and its disturbing consequence in which the God of Israel and the Church is a capricious and non-trustworthy God (p. 165). But in many places he parodies Wright and the scholarship seems not fair.

Another Amazon reviewer, Bernard Cross (Atlanta, GA) thinks the author gets Wright wrong. He wrote

Harink is at his best when he focuses on Hauerwas and Yoder; unfortunately, when Harink turns to Wright, his examination… does not display a thorough understanding of Wright’s work. The weaknesses on Wright betray further his inability to comprehend the most important international "postliberal" Pauline scholar forces the reader to question whether he really has a grip on postliberalism (or Paul) at all.

Personally, even for argument’s sake, I would not call Wright a postliberal. He is postliberal only in the widest sense of the term. Wright shares the postliberal (or alternative “neo-Augustinian) vision with Hays and Hauerwas in that they strive to revive the proper place of Old Testament law and the narrative understanding (as opposed to forensic) of salvation in the church. They differ significant as to whether general revelation grounds specific revelation. I believe that given the limited scope of this book, this disagreement cannot be adequately addressed.

>

Chapter Five: Culture.

The gospel with all its offensive character would, oddly, generates a culture of respect in conformity with the modern (but not the secularist) concept of religious toleration.

It is said that Harink fails to be persuasive in interpreting Paul here (cf. Galatians 1:8-9).

 

[省思] 陳希曾博士對救恩預定與自由意志的總結

Free place to sleep

Source: http://cclw.net/other/chenxizen/index.html

在網路上,有許多追求神學理解的信徒與非信徒,最喜歡在上帝的主權和人自由意志的議題上爭辯。爭辯久了,整體的神學層次和眼界卻未見有任何提升。對此,陳希曾博士中肯地說道

慕迪有一次做了個比方,他說:“當你到天堂門口的時候,門口掛了個牌子,寫著‘凡願意的都可以白白的得到,你可以進來。’等你進了門,回頭一看,門上面有另外一個牌子,寫道:‘你是預定的’。”所以弟兄姊妹,有許多東西今天是看不見的,我們不懂,但在教會歷史裡卻有很多的爭執,從大復興一直遺留下來。當初加爾文看得很清楚,一切都是恩典,我們什麼都不用、也不能做,都是主為我們做的。問題是,我們有思想、有意志,我們要回應。一個兒子和一台機器人不同在哪裡呢?你叫機器兒子說“爸爸好”,它就說“爸爸好”,它沒有思想,不能反應。但兒子則不一樣,兒子會有自由意志的反應。的確,我們什麼都不能做,但至少對神的旨意和神的愛,我們應該有回應。今天相信預定的人最怕這句話,因為這表示我們自己有責任。什麼是責任?就是你對某一個東西要有回應,對神的 ability要有回應,你回應神的ability,就表示神大能的福音救了你這個人;當你回應說“我願意”,這就是你的責任。如果仔細讀聖經,這一點都不衝突。但有的人只看見一面,沒看見另外一面,大家就在那裡爭執,在教會歷史裡,這是很悲哀、很痛苦的。

有一個真實的故事,有兩首詩歌,一首是“永久磐石為我開”,做詩這位弟兄是跟隨加爾文的,他認為一切都是恩典。另一首是“耶穌我靈魂的愛人”,大家都很喜歡唱,寫這首詩歌的作者查理衛斯理是相信自由意志的。因著兩人所見的不同,結果他們爭論起來了,都要“為主打美好的仗”。最後寫“永久磐石為我開 ”的作者臨終時留下遺囑,等他死後要把墳墓對著衛斯理的講台,事後果然就是如此。但聖靈做了件奇妙的事,在許多英文詩歌本中,“耶穌我靈魂的愛人”和“永久磐石為我開”,常常編排在一起,這實在是聖靈的工作。

所以等到有一天我們到了主那裡,就發現這些爭執都是不必要的。我們只是瞎子摸象,所摸到的無論是腿或鼻子,都不過是象的一部分,不可以為那是象的整體。我們在見到主面之前,不過是對著鏡子觀看,模糊不清。這是加爾文留下的負面影響。因為日內瓦的祝福太大,所以大家認為基督化的世界是有可能的,人們不知不覺就有了這觀念,以為基督化的社會就等於教會。但我們不要忘記,教會只是基督的身體,包括了蒙恩得救的人。路德會和羅馬教不同處在於“教會世界化” 了;加爾文是“世界教會化”了,不管從那個角度看都有難處。

當代華人基督徒對自由意志和預定論的討論,基本上都沒有被二十世紀的神學和當代歐陸哲學啟蒙及薰陶過。以致於持續陷在鬼打牆的爭議裡,加諸舊式獨斷的形上學觀點在聖經上。鮮少有人能像陳希曾博士說得這麼犀利中肯。

凡是想要將聖經救恩教義系統化的人,都必須承認舊有框架對經文證據和人類實存經驗解釋力的不足,也就是一位「全能全善的神」這個命題和「不完美的世界」這個命題及實存經驗相容的問題。陳希曾博士這一種謙卑的認識論,是我們建構神學形上學所需要的起點。

聖經以弗所書1:3-14說:

我們主耶穌基督的父 神是應當稱頌的。他在基督裡,曾經把天上各種屬靈的福分賜給我們: 4 就如創立世界以前,他在基督裡揀選了我們,使我們因著愛,在他面前成為聖潔,沒有瑕疵。 5 他又按著自己旨意所喜悅的,預定我們藉著耶穌基督得兒子的名分, 6 好使他恩典的榮耀得著頌讚。這恩典是他在愛子裡賜給我們的。 7 我們在他愛子裡,藉著他的血蒙了救贖,過犯得到赦免,都是按著他豐盛的恩典。 8 這恩典是他用各樣的智慧和聰明,充充足足地賜給我們的; 9 他照著自己在基督裡預先安排的美意,使我們知道他旨意的奧祕, 10 到了所計劃的時機成熟,就使天上地上的萬有,都在基督裡同歸於一。 11 那憑著自己旨意所計劃而行萬事的,按著他預先所安排的預定我們在基督裡得基業 , 12 藉著我們這在基督裡首先有盼望的人,使他的榮耀得著頌讚。 13 你們既然聽了真理的道,就是使你們得救的福音,也信了基督,就在他裡面受了所應許的聖靈作為印記。 14 這聖靈是我們得基業的憑據,直到 神的產業得贖,使他的榮耀得著頌讚

聖經羅馬書11:15-36說:

15 如果他們被捨棄,世人就可以與 神復和;他們蒙接納,不就等於從死人中復活嗎? 16 如果首先獻上的生麵是聖的,整團麵也是聖的;如果樹根是聖的,樹枝也是聖的。 17 如果把幾根樹枝折下來,讓你這野橄欖可以接上去,一同分享那橄欖樹根的汁漿, 18 你就不可向那些樹枝誇口。你若要誇口,就應當想想:不是你支持著樹根,而是樹根支持著你。 19 那麼你會說,那些樹枝被折下來,就是要把我接上去。 20 不錯,他們因為不信而被折下來,你因著信才站立得住。只是不可心高氣傲,倒要存畏懼的心。 21  神既然不顧惜那本來的樹枝,也不會顧惜你。 22 所以要留意 神的恩慈和嚴厲:對跌倒的人,他是嚴厲的;對你,只要你繼續在他的恩慈裡,他是恩慈的;不然的話,你也會被砍下來。 23 至於他們,如果不是繼續不信,他們仍然會被接上去,因為 神能夠把他們再接上去。 24 你這從野生的橄欖樹上砍下來的,尚且可以不自然地接在栽種的橄欖樹上,那些本來就有的樹枝,不是更能夠接在原來的橄欖樹上嗎? 25 弟兄們,我不願意你們對這奧祕一無所知,免得你們自以為聰明。這奧祕就是以色列人當中有一部分是硬心的,直到外族人的全數滿了; 26 這樣,全以色列都要得救,如經上所記:"拯救者必從錫安出來,除掉雅各家的不敬虔的心; 27 我除去他們罪惡的時候,就與他們立這樣的約。" 28 就福音來說,因你們的緣故,他們是仇敵;就揀選來說,因祖宗的緣故,他們是蒙愛的。 29 因為 神的恩賞和呼召是決不會反悔的。 30 正如你們從前不順服 神,現在卻因著他們的不順服,你們倒蒙了憐憫; 31 照樣,他們因著你們所蒙的憐憫,現在也不順服,使他們現在也可以蒙憐憫。 32 因為 神把所有的人都圈在不順服之中,為了要憐憫所有的人。 33  神的豐富、智慧和知識,是多麼高深啊!他的判斷是多麼難測,他的道路是多麼難尋! 34 "誰知道主的心意,誰作過他的參謀?" 35 "誰先給了他,以致他要償還呢?" 36 因為萬有都是本於他,倚靠他,歸於他。願榮耀歸給他,直到永遠。阿們。

講到救恩與揀選,這兩段是我最喜歡的經文。對Karl Barth來說,教義神學的本質乃是頌讚(doxology)。對那恩典的奧妙、神慈愛的大能,我們僅能做的回應乃是頌讚。

幾個世紀以來,在「前自由觀」裡的我們為了人類是否本質上自由而爭辯。然而聖經告訴我們,一切我們擁有的自由,乃是一種後自由。在神恩慈憐憫的預定與揀選下,「頌讚」將是我們我們展現生命的方式。人類在世上渺小的生命,和他在永恆中所追求的,將是這發自內心的頌讚,這在我們的順服之中所彰顯的、基督化的真自由。

[省思] Slavoj Žižek’s speech at ‘Occupy Wall Street

Source: 1) English transcript 2) Chinese translation

【Forewords and Summarizing thoughts

我向來對#OWS這種中產階級後裔「新無產階級」學子的群眾運動並不看好,但 Zizek 的演說顯然讓人看到他對理想主義的堅持和信念改造的努力。講聖靈那段讓我很驚訝,彷彿看到Milbank在他身上的潛移默化。最後,他雖然沒有指出為何「增富人稅」、「全民健保模式」、和「新經濟制度」在全球化消費主義與競爭下是可能的,卻隱約指向了核心的救贖契機:我們必須成為一個有神學倫理信念和行動力的後自由社群- NOT FOR A BETTER LIVING STANDARD, BUT A BETTER (MORE MEANINGFUL AND FRUITFUL) LIFE.

  1. “[They are saying] we are all losers, but the true losers are down there on Wall Street. They were bailed out by billions of our money. We are called socialists, but here there is already socialism — for the rich. They say we don’t respect private property. But in the 2008 financial crash-down more hard-earned private property was destroyed than if all of us here were to be destroying it night and day for weeks. They tell you we are dreamers; the true dreamers are those who think things can go on indefinitely the way they are. We are not dreamers; we are awakening from the dream that is turning into a nightmare. We are not destroying anything; we are only witnessing how the system is destroying itself. We all know the classic scene from cartoons. The cartoon cat reaches a precipice, but it goes on walking, ignoring the fact that there is nothing beneath its ground. Only when it looks down and notices it he falls down. This is what we are doing here. We are telling the guys there on Wall Street, ‘Hey! Look down!

     『(他們說)我們全是失敗者,其實真正的失敗者就在華爾街裡,他們要靠我們付出數以十億計的金錢救濟才能脫困;有人說我們是社會主義者, 但其實這裡早就存 在社會主義——是專為富人而設的社會主義;他們又說我們不尊重私有產權,但在2008年的金融海嘯裡,許多人辛勤工作買來的私有產業都被摧毀了,數量之 巨,就算我們這裡所有人日以繼夜去動手破壞,幾個星期也破壞不完;他們又告訴大家,我們這群人正在作夢,其實真正在作夢的,是那些以為現有的一切將會永遠 持續下去的人。我們不是在作夢,我們是在喚醒一個正在變成噩夢的夢想;我們沒有破壞任何東西,我們只是在目擊這個制度如何自我毀滅。大家都熟悉這段卡通片 情節:那隻卡通貓走到懸崖邊上,還是繼續跑出去,沒理會下面已經空空如也,只有當牠向下看時,方才發現這個事實,然後就掉下去了。我們在這裡正是要做這樣的事情:我們要告訴華爾街那些傢伙:「喂!看看下面!」
  2. [inaudible] “… In April 2011, the Chinese government prohibited on TV, films, and in novels all stories that contain alternate reality or time travel. This is a good sign for China; it means people still dream about alternatives, so we have to prohibited this dreaming. Here we don’t think of prohibition because the ruling history has even oppressed our capacity to dream. Look at the movies that we see all the time. It’s easy to imagine the end of the world — an asteroid destroying all of life, and so on — but we cannot imagine the end of capitalism. So what are we doing here? Let me tell you a wonderful old joke from Communist times. A guy was sent to work in East Germanyfrom Siberia. He knew his mail would be read by censors, so he told his friends, ‘Let’s establish a code. If a letter you get from me is written in blue ink, it is true what I say; if it is written in red ink, it is false.’ After a month, his friends get a first letter. Everything is in blue. It says, this letter: ‘Everything is wonderful here. The stores are full of good food, movie theatres show good films from the West, apartments are large and luxurious. The only thing you cannot buy is red ink.’ This is how we live. We have all the freedoms we want, but what we are missing is red ink: the language to articulate our non-freedom. The way we are taught to speak about freedom, ‘war on terror,’ and so on, falsifies freedom. And this is what you are doing here: You are giving all of us red ink. !
    2011年4月,中國政府禁止了電視、電影和小說裡一切含有「另類現實」或描寫時間旅行的故事情節,這對中國來說是個好的徵兆:人們仍然夢想另有出路,因 此政府才要出手禁制。在這裡我們就連禁制都不必要,因為統治體制連我們夢想的能力也早就壓制下去了。看看我們常看的電影,我們很容易就想像出世界末日—— 比如一顆隕石掉下來殺死所有生命之類——可是我們卻很難想像資本主義的末日。那麼我們正在這裡幹甚麼?讓我告訴大家共產時代一個精采的老笑話:有個傢伙從西伯利亞給派到 東德工作,他知道自己的郵件都會被人監看,因此他告訴朋友:「我們定一個暗號,假如我的信件用藍墨水寫,裡面說的都是真話;如果我用紅墨 水,說的都是假話。」一個月後他的朋友收到他第一封信,都是用藍墨水寫成的:「這兒一切都美好,商店裡塞滿了好吃的食品,戲院播放著來自西方的好電影,住宅又大又豪華。唯一買 不到的東西就是紅墨水。」這就是我們的生活模式。我們擁有一切想要的自由,但卻缺少了紅墨水:能夠清楚表達我們「非自由」的語言。我們被灌輸的那種談論自 由的方式,例如「反恐戰爭」之類詞語,已經篡改了自由的意義。而你們正在給大家送上紅色的墨水。

    The corner of Wall Street and Broadway, showin...

    Wall Street

  3. “There is a danger: Don’t fall in love with yourselves. We have a nice time here. But remember: Carnivals come cheap. What matters is the day after when we will have to return to normal life. Will there be any changes then? I don’t want you to remember these days, you know, like, ‘Oh, we were young, it was beautiful…’ Remember that our basic message is, ‘We are allowed to think about alternatives.’ A taboo is broken. We do not live in the best possible world. But there is a long road ahead. There are truly difficult questions that confront us. We know what we do not want, but what do we want? What social organization can replace capitalism? What type of new leaders do we want? Remember: The problem is not corruption or greed; the problem is the system which pushes you to be corrupt. Beware not only of the enemies, but also of false friends who are already working to dilute this process in the same way you get coffee without caffeine, beer without alcohol, ice cream without fat. They will try to make this into a harmless moral protest, a decaffeinated protest. But the reason we are here is that we have had enough of the world where to recycle Coke cans to give a couple of dollars to charity, or to buy a Starbucks cappuccino where one percent goes to Third World starving children is enough to make us feel good. After outsourcing work and torture, after immense agencies are outsourcing even our love life… MIC CHECK!… We can see that for a long time, we allowed our political engagement also to be outsourced. We want it back.
    這次運動有一個危機:請大家不要自我感覺良好。不錯,我們在這裡很開心,但請你們記著:搞一個嘉年華會很容易,真正重要的是在我們回到正常生活後那天。到 時候是否有任何事情改變了?我不希望大家回憶這段日子的方式,就是「噢,我們那時候多年輕,那次運動真美好……」之類。要牢記著我們最基本的信息:「我們 可以思考其他的生活方式。」一個禁忌被打破了。我們並不是活在可能裡最好的世界。但在我們面前還有一條漫長的道路,要面對一些真正困難的問題。我們知道自 己不想要甚麼,可是我們想要甚麼?怎麼樣的社會組織能夠取代資本主義?我們希望擁有甚麼類型的新領袖?記著:問題不在於腐敗和貪婪;問題在於一個把人推向 腐敗的制度。不只要提防你的敵人,也要防範那些虛假的盟友,他們已經開始把這個運動淡化,就像製造沒有咖啡因的咖啡、沒有酒精的啤酒、沒有脂肪的冰淇淋一 樣。他們試圖把這次運動變成一次無害的道德抗議,一次「脫咖啡因」的抗議。然而我們來到這裡的原因,正正就是受夠了這個偽善的世界:循環再造一堆可樂罐以 捐兩塊錢做善事,又或者去星巴克買杯卡布奇諾咖啡,把1%捐贈給第三世界的飢餓兒童,就足以感覺良好。當我們把工作和酷刑都外包了,甚至連愛情生活都 外包給婚姻介紹所之後……我們可以看見,在一段很長的日子裡,我們容許自己的政治參與也「外包」了,假別人之手進行。現在我們要把這個權力取回來。
  4. “We are not Communists, if Communism means the system which collapsed in 1990. Remember that today those Communists are the most efficient, ruthless capitalists. In China today we have a capitalism which is even more dynamic than your American capitalism but doesn’t need democracy, which means, when you criticize capitalism, don’t allow yourselves to be blackmailed that you are ‘against democracy.’ The marriage between democracy and capitalism is over. A change is possible.
    我們不是共產主義者——假如所指的是在1990年已經崩潰的那個共產主義的話。別忘記今天的那些所謂共產主義者,只是一群最有效率、最不擇手段的資本主義 者。今日存在於中國的是一個比美國的資本主義動力更強,卻又不需要民主的資本主義制度。因此當你批評資本主義時,不要讓別人扣上「反民主」的帽子。民主與 資本主義之間的聯姻已經終結了。改變是可能的事情。!
  5. “Now, what we consider today possible? Just follow the media. On the one hand, in technology and sexuality — everything seems to be possible. You can travel to the moon, you can become immortal by biogenetics, you can have sex with animals or whatever. But look at the field of society and economy — there, almost everything is considered impossible. You want to raise taxes a little bit for the rich, they tell you it’s impossible. We lose competitivity. You want more money for healthcare, they tell you, ‘Impossible! This means a totalitarian state.’ Is there something wrong with the world where you are promised to be immortal but they cannot spend a little more for healthcare? Maybe we have to set our priorities straight. We don’t want higher standards of living; we want better standards of living! The only sense in which we are Communists is that we care for the commons: the commons of nature, the commons of what is privatized by intellectual property, the commons of biogenetics. For this, and only for this, we should fight. Communism failed absolutely, but the problems of the commons are here. They are telling you we are not American here, but the conservative fundamentalists who claim they are ‘really’ Americans have to be reminded of something: What is Christianity? It’s the Holy Spirit. What is the Holy Spirit? It’s an egalitarian community of believers who are linked by love for each other and who only have their own freedom and responsibility to do it. In this sense the Holy Spirit is here now, and down there on Wall Street there are bankers who are worshiping blasphemous idols. So all we need is patience.今天的人們相信有甚麼是可能做到的?看看媒體的報導。這邊廂,由科技到性慾,好像甚麼都有可能。你能夠去月球旅行,用生物基因科技達到長春不老,可 以跟動物做愛,諸如此類。但另一邊廂,一碰上社會經濟的範疇,幾乎一切都被視為不可能。你想加一點富裕階層的賦稅嗎?他們會告訴你不可能,我們將因此失去 競爭力;要把多些錢投入公共醫療保障嗎?他們會說:「不可能!這做法等於極權國家。」當人們得到允諾將要長春不老的同時,卻不允許花多一點錢在醫療保障上 ——這樣的世界不是很有問題嗎?也許我們應該把事情的優先次序搞明白:我們不是要求「更高」的生活水準;我們要的是「更好」的生活水準!要說我們跟共產主 義者有甚麼唯一的相似之處,那就是我們關心普羅群眾:大自然裡的群眾;活在知識產權私有化底下的群眾;在生物基因科技下的群眾。我們應該為此而戰鬥,也只 為此而戰鬥。共產主義徹底失敗了,可是群眾面對的問題仍在。那些人告訴你,我們聚集在這兒的都不是真正的美國人。但我們要提醒那些自稱「真正」美國人的保 守原教旨主義人士:甚麼是基督精神?是聖靈。甚麼是聖靈?是一群信仰者組成的一個平均主義團體,他們以互愛的精神彼此連繫,並且只憑自由意志與義務責任心 去實踐這個理想。這麼看,聖靈現在其實就在這裡,而在華爾街那頭的銀行家,都是一群褻瀆偶像的崇拜者。因此我們需要的只是耐心。
  6. “The only thing I’m afraid of is that we will someday just go home, and then we will meet once a year, drinking beer and nostalgically remembering what a nice time we had here. Promise ourselves that this will not be the case. You know that people often desire something but do not really want it. Don’t be afraid to really want what you desire. Thank you very much!
    我唯一害怕的,是我們有一天就此回家,然後每年在這兒聚聚頭,喝喝啤酒,懷緬我們在這裡曾經擁有過的美好時光。我們要向自己承諾不要變成那樣。大家都知道,人們總是渴望一些東西,卻又不是真的想爭取它。不要害怕爭取你渴望的東西。多謝各位!』

A few thoughts:

1) Žižek is still incredible. He really wants to make something out of this weak and loose movements comprised of these young white students from middle-class family. The bold lines I made in the above transcript is the key concepts consistent in all Žižek’s post-Marxist project.

Concerning the "outsourcing of labor and torture" in Zizekian thoughts, Charles Lai on facebook made an excellent footnote (which Žižek himself has elucidated in various places):

This is a tricky part. In my own opinion he is referring to Hannah Arendt’s definition of ‘labour’ and ‘work’: ‘Labour’ is essentially those activity that sustains life, including not only production but also household activities such as breathing, eating, etc. The Latin origin of the word ‘torture’ comes from the word ‘necessity’. Torture is therefore to take away someone’s ability to breath, eat, etc. As for ‘work’ it means the ‘work of mind’, activities that concern the mental life: love, hate, think, etc
So when he say ‘torture’ he doesn’t really mean punishment, but daily household activities such as cooking, laundry, cleaning, etc. Activities to maintain life. So I think it is more appropriate to say ‘當我們把生活和思想都外判了’as he is basically criticizing the mental (or political, in his own word) life of the people.

This reflects the classic Marxist concept of "alienation" and Max Weber’s "technocracy" (including technological bureaucracy,  politics of paternalism and expertism.The interesting thing is Karl Marx directs his critique against capitalism when he uses alienation, whereas technocracy/paternalism is certainly a problem exacerbated in communist regimes according to Weber.They both displayed desire to control over nature and over human autonomy, twisting human nature in an inevitably unnatural way.

Most post-marxists and new leftists just realized this- that no single and simple alternative could stand out as a solution.

2) Several years ago in Taiwan there were political demonstrations such as ‘Wild Strawberry’ student demonstration (野草莓學運)and Red-Shirt Army Anti-President Campaign (紅衫軍倒扁) that are basically of the same nature as this one: middle class young people gathered for justice, freedom, unity, political rights, and anti-corruption. The issue is, why cannot these kinds of movements appeal to lower class people, the marginalized, and minority groups? Clearly since middle class are the main constituents of taxpayers,  they are most prone to be ignited by the misuse of government tax income that benefits people richer than they are (in the case of #OWS, the wall-street millionaires, and in the case of  Red-Shirt Army, the former president Chen Sui-Bien and his family), which is called ‘corruption.

3) However, a viable alternative is yet to be devised. Žižek is facing this issue that he recognizes well too when he said:

But look at the field of society and economy — there, almost everything is considered impossible. You want to raise taxes a little bit for the rich, they tell you it’s impossible. We lose competitivity. You want more money for healthcare, they tell you, ‘Impossible! This means a totalitarian state.’ Is there something wrong with the world where you are promised to be immortal but they cannot spend a little more for healthcare? Maybe we have to set our priorities straight. We don’t want higher standards of living; we want better standards of living!

I have long pointed out in here, here, and here that neo-liberal and right-wing pro-market economists have raised real objections to defend what they think to be  impossible changes. They have told you that if they earn less or are allowed to possess only limited and less power, their whole countrymen will suffer more- from losing national competitively to more jobless people to more social turmoil.

Louis Althusser’s insight on "the ideological apparatus" has revealed for us that the totalitarian society is characterized by the use of a functionalist institution  dedicated to propagate a mode of thinking to ethically justify and effectually strengthen its totalitarian control and serve the interests of the dominant group[s].

In a recent [Chinese] article (http://t.co/JXR0jhlE), we are asked to call into question if the apparent Sino-American enmity is a staged diplomatic scheme, for nothing else but the exchange of interests for the leaders of  both sides. Namely, the communists need USA as the apparent foe in order to unite the Chinese, and USA vice versa.

The author’s speculation is reminiscent of Althusser’s "ideological apparatus."To prove their theses false is not easy. The Chinese Communist government would willingly acknowledge that a "small" amount of people will have to be sacrificed in order to achieve greater unity and prosperity for the West does not want China to prosper and want to divide China (which is certainly or somewhat true). The Right-Wing American politicians and its constituents would also say that a degree of social injustice is necessary to provide impetus for social upward mobility, for human beings are lazy but greedy by nature (which is certainly or somewhat true).

Along this line of pragmatic reasoning, totalitarian control has justifications; consumerism has justifications; neo-liberalism has justifications. Emotional and passion-driven leftism has no use unless we can provide a different kind of politics that is based on MORAL REALISM rather than PRAGMATISM, unless we become an ad hoc community that lives our lives and goals for something else than our own goods, and for someone else rather than ourselves.

4) In this blog and my conversation I have argued relentlessly  that moral realism cannot be fully functional unless it is theological and post-liberal (cultural-linguistic). Therefore, I am really amazed and impressed to hear the atheist philosopher saying:

Communism failed absolutely, but the problems of the commons are here. They are telling you we are not American here, but the conservative fundamentalists who claim they are ‘really’ Americans have to be reminded of something: What is Christianity? It’s the Holy Spirit. What is the Holy Spirit? It’s an egalitarian community of believers who are linked by love for each other and who only have their own freedom and responsibility to do it. In this sense the Holy Spirit is here now, and down there on Wall Street there are bankers who are worshiping blasphemous idols.

A similar point is made by Ming-Hui Peng, a prematurely retired Taiwanese professor and public intellectual that much young Taiwanese people of my generation admire. As an unbeliever, he nonetheless says he holds the Bible with a high esteem and sincerely admires Christians like Albert Schweitzer, Mother Teresa, and Leo Tolstoy (all of them are Christians to my mind- I don’t argue that- though one is liberal, one is Catholic, and one is sectarian and quasi-postliberal):

…我講課和演講時常常要提醒聽眾:「我不是基督徒。」因為我常引用聖經,很多聽過的基督徒都很感動,說我比基督徒更像基督徒,比牧師更像牧師。…

但 是,除了想要活得有意義之外,我不信奇蹟,不追求永生,不追求極樂。在我眼中,我是一個最純粹的教徒:無所求地奉守戒律、追求智慧和屬靈的生活,除此一無 所求。相較之下,我覺得很多教徒的信仰都是「買賣式的信仰」:遵守教規像買賣,希望藉此在天堂或極樂世界有一座房地產。

在我心裡,我跟這些教徒都跟真正的宗教無關,只屬於俗世。真正的宗教徒,是像史懷哲、德瑞莎修女和托爾斯泰這樣的人。…

在我心目中,為富不仁或不仁而富的人,跟黑猩猩沒兩樣;華爾街裡追逐名利、慾望的基督徒跟黑猩猩沒兩樣,白宮和國會山莊裡的人也大多跟黑猩猩沒兩樣―― 黑猩猩有階級、會搞政治、哀悼同伴、用性器官緩和雄性間的緊張關係、壟斷資源、霸佔性伴侶、為了疆域或娛樂(而非免除飢餓)而殺戮,etc(你可以再寫下 去),幾乎白宮、國會和華爾街裡有的黑猩猩的社群裡都有)。唯一的差別是:還沒有人發現黑猩猩說謊――好像還沒有人發現政治人物或大財主不說謊?…

我不是教徒,但是我寫部落格、寫書的最終目的,就是想傳播這樣的一種信仰:活著,值得;人,是一種有尊嚴、有價值、有某種「神聖性」的存在――但是他必須先克服自己的自私、貪婪和獸性。…(full article)

As for Žižek, I started to wonder whether years of debate and exchange with the Anglican theologian John Milbank has helped him to go deeper to see something transcendent that gives our ephemeral movements and decisions meanings, in the realist and eschatological sense, in order that he would say that we need the Holy Spirit (instead of a new ideology or public religion) to combat the Wall Street Gold Calf and all its associated blasphemous idols.

The world is polarizing itself, and we need more than ever to seek the presence of the One true God to win this battle against greed, against injustice, against false idols, and against ourselves.

[書摘] Divine Impassability or Simply Divine Constancy?

Source:  Bruce McCormack, ‘Divine Impassability or Simply Divine Constancy? Karl Barth’s Later Christology for Debates over Impassability’ in Divine Impassibility and the Mystery of Human Suffering,  James Keating & Thomas Joseph White eds., Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2009, pp. 150-186

Summary:

In this article, Bruce McCormack argues that we should dispense with the apostolic doctrine of divine impassibility, not just because of Adolf von Harnack’s Hellenization thesis (that the apostolic fathers’ exegesis has been contaminated by platonic thoughts), but more so because of Christology.

It is more justifiable to speak of God‘s fidelity and constancy. God’s affectivity is demonstrated in His own free power and His innermost essence, open and ready to co-suffering with alien suffering. Barth criticizes Schleiermacher’s conception of absolute dependence because the source of this absolute dependence has no heart and no soul (KD II/1, p.416; CD II/1, p.370).

For Barth, the human Jesus that suffers and dies is truly and fully God, and this creates two problems concerning the immutability and the impassability of God.

We have only two options. The first is to mystify the relationship between the ontic Trinity and the economic Trinity—that the transcendent God is also the immanent God with us is a paradox, a paradox culminated in Mk 15:34: "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?" In the incarnation God not only becomes the creature, but gives himself over to the human’s contradiction of him, placing himself under the judgment that rests on that contradiction.

But according to Barth this solution is intolerable in that it sets God in self-contradiction. How can God reconcile the world with Himself if there is any fundamental self-contradiction in His [immanent and economic] nature?

Communication of attributes between Christ‘s two natures is an area of debate between reformed orthodoxy and Lutheran theology. But no one here who holds to the traditional paradox can give a satisfactory single-subject Christological account of the communication of attributes without either drifting into Nestorianism or winding up with greater paradox.

The only remaining option is to affirm that God has completely faithful to Himself. God must be fully committed in being in Christ and must not flirt with other possibilities. We can successfully hold this claim only by beginning with what God does in Jesus Christ, such a God that can be emptied, humiliated, suffer, and die. God’s immutability is preserved by if we speak of the ontology of God first and foremost in light of the Christocentric historical revelation. The Majesty of the father and the obedience of the son are manifestations of a single divine subject in different modes of being, a purposive /willed “self-repetition”. We might say it is precisely the father’s majestic command which posits Himself over against himself in the person of the son that is capable of responding in obedience.

Tweaking Barth’s theology in this actualistic way, there will be no room left for divine impassability.

The homecoming of the son of man” in CD IV/2

Barth and Cyril of Alexander both hold to the conviction that “what the man Jesus does, God does.” Cyril’s solution is to instrumentalize the human nature of Jesus to make it a tool/performative agent of the Logos as the single subject in Jesus Christ.

But to prevent it from collapsing into a Hegelian reduction, the abstractness of the Chalcedonian formula needs some reworking. Classically there is a static center between the great divine acts of virginal conception and resurrection that bypasses the history of Jesus. Barth thinks that we have to ‘actualize’ the doctrine of the incarnation that the traditional concepts of unio, communion, and communication will be all “terms which speak of actions, operationes, events.” (CD IV/2 p.46)

Christ exists in a modality of being in perfect receptivity in a kind of relation of his humanity that is more than merely economic, it constitutes God second mode of being in eternity. That the command and the obedience are the dual aspects of the divine election into eternal processions means the second person of the Trinity is always the “Logos asarkos in anticipation of the Logos ensarkos”. The hypostatic union is not a static state but can only be spoken as hypostatic uniting from a timeless aspect. Barth has set aside the essentialism of the ancient church and rejected that there is a Logos acting in and through and upon the human nature. He exchanged what was essentialist for an understanding that is historicized and actualistic.

Barth is not Arian, but also not a modalist according to the following reasons:

1)      Though Modalists (Noetus and Praxeas) and Barth both attributed suffering to the Father in certain ways, Barth has an adequate distinction between the person of the Father and that of the Son. The threes persons for Barth are distinguished not according to temporal or economic phases, but in the decision that takes place in eternity. The modalist thinking has been continued in 19th century Lutheran kenoticism (Wolfgang Gess). (Notice also that Swiss reformed concept of “the genus tapeinoticum” [literally: the “genus of humility”] is the logical contrary of the Lutheran genus majestaticum.)

2)      Barth also distinguishes himself from Sabellius. The three persons for Barth exist in their different modes of being, and for Sabellius different modes of appearance.

3)      Barth identifies the misguided doctrinal commitment to divine impassibility as the root problem of both modalism and subordinationism. That is to say, God could have remained impassible only if He did not elect Himself to be for us. But since He did and He is completely faithful to whom He is, then there is no place for impassibility.

McCormack’s final suggestion is that Karl Barth has completely moved away and beyond early church fathers, including Cappadocian fathers, in terms of metaphysical framework.

The Scholastic effort to tie them back together is wrong and useless.  We have to accept Karl Barth  and reject church fathers because their worldviews were conditioned by their Hellenistic world rather than the biblical one.  This is inevitable because the Bible simply did not give us a firm and consistent teaching in metaphysics. That is not the concern of the biblical writers. This means today we have to develop a different set of Scriptural ontology according to our best understanding of the conditions of our time- the postmodern, and even the postliberal condition.

神的想法就是神的行動就是神的本質=自由?

Sci-fi

possible worlds ontology

在三一神學院Kantzer Lectures in Revealed Theology的最後一場,Bruce McCormack 提到Karl Barth 教義學革命的核心觀念:上帝的自由。

他認為,上帝的自由不在於「從各種可行方案中做出決定」的權力,而在於「祂的選擇就是祂自己、祂自己就是祂的選擇」。從這個觀念推演下去的下一個重要拼圖是基督論。

如果基督是具有神、人二性的上帝之子。那麼我們將能從祂身上得知上帝的選擇是什麼、也就是上帝祂自己是什麼(Heb 1:3; Col 1:15-16):一個向人類開放、捨己、受苦、與人類同在,卻又榮耀無比的三一上帝。

這樣,如果上帝的選擇如此、上帝自由之中所彰顯的意志是如此,我們將面對一個問題:上帝有沒有別的選擇-不論是創造或救贖這世界的方式?

客西馬尼的禱告中,當耶穌這樣問時,從上而來的聲音是一陣靜默。

不像提出神義論(Theodicy)的 Leibniz 過去說:上帝已經在所有可能世界中選擇執行了一個最佳化的世界, McCormack 認為上帝根本沒有別的選擇。「祂的選擇就是祂自己、祂自己就是祂的選擇!」重申一遍。若有任何其他的選擇可以做,上帝都將不再是 [這個] 上帝。

這就是實行的本體論(actualistic ontology)的威力:它把上帝的選擇/行動與祂自己的本體綁死。又藉著基督論把上帝的選擇和整個時間維度中的宇宙歷史綁死(儘管是用基督化的歷史觀而非用 Hegel 的唯心史觀看待)。

接下來的邏輯是,如果宇宙就是上帝永恆抉擇的彰顯,那麼就等於說上帝預定了一切。這點連通到 John Calvin 的預定論(predestination)以及傳統的墮前救贖論(supralapsarianism)。

由於我不同意 Calvin 的預定論,這裡我出現第一個疑惑。(但我支持墮前救贖論。這點聖經中說得太清楚了。)

我的考量在於「預知」在「上帝自由選擇」之中所能扮演的地位。McCormack 認為上帝所想(will)的事,就是上帝所知道(know)的事,兩者沒有差別、也不能分開。換句話說,所有上帝知道的事,都是祂想要的、選擇的、以及將會被執行的。上帝完全不會去思考、也不知道、不用知道那些祂所不想、不會做、以及不會在人類歷史中發生的事。

這裡我產生第二個問題。

我在談 上帝的預定、可能世界(possible worlds)與中介知識(middle knowledge) 的聊天記錄中表明,我相信中介知識和可能世界的存在。這是建立在上帝如同一部精密大腦的圖像上。中介知識是由約莫改教時期的天主教神學家 Luis de Molina 所提出,他認為上帝的全知除了 Thomas Aquinas 所提出的「自然知識」(不涉及意志的邏輯知識: "5" 比 "4"大、牛角是尖的)和「自由知識」(即上帝既知道、又去執行的知識。如:哪些人會得救、明天會不會下雨等等)之外 ,還有一種中介知識,就是那些只存在於可能世界中、而上帝既沒有動念去積極執行(所以獨立於上帝的自由知識),又在現實生活中與事實相反的事。

撒上廿三:11-13提到,身在基伊拉城的大衛求問神,若掃羅以滅城來逼基伊拉人交大衛出來,基伊拉人會否交大衛出來,神藉著祂的中介知識說「必交出來」。這種對虛構處境的肯定性知識,是神於受造物自由意志將如何運行、及將產生如何相映結局的預知。

我認為中介知識的神學預設,能夠發散出對「恩典」與「自由」更積極的理解。也就是說,人類每一步的選擇和行動,都像地圖捲軸被打開一般。整份地圖的製圖師上帝,雖然已經知道所有路徑以及人類會去選擇的方式(中介知識/弱預定),但人還是有完全的參與性。

再者,聖經除了在中介知識之外(另一處的例證是耶穌論及當今的世代邪惡背逆,不聽福音。而若早有這福音傳給所多瑪、蛾摩拉的話連他們都會悔改),更肯定了 人的選擇權(如保羅勸勉人不要濫用在基督裡的真自由、如耶穌的生命成為我們的表率是因為他的甘心順服彰顯人神意志的連結,而非僅是三一神自我決議後位格間 的融洽交流而已)。

反觀 McCormack ,他把「可能性」刪除盡淨,比起傳統的改革宗還要激進。如此操作方式產生的問題顯而易見:這讓「納粹屠殺」、「南亞海嘯」、「變態虐嬰殺嬰」等所有的一切爛事,都不可避免將被歸算為上帝在完全自由底下所決定開敞的積極行動。這樣的想法簡單說,叫人難以下嚥;技術點地說,我們的智慧和神學欠缺對從上帝眼光深描這些殘酷和苦難事件的能力。如果我們能肯定一事是神的積極作為,缺無法同時明白道出神藉此作為所顯明的積極意志為何,這是不平衡及不負責的神學。

換句話說,「表面違反神良善慈愛公義本性的天災人禍」只能被適當地理解為神的消極作為,亦即「神允許」或「神未曾插手」,以及「神有當下我們所不能明白的計畫」。

Hans Urs von Balthasar 的天主教巴特詮釋路線,是成熟的後自由神學必須取道經過的。Von Balthasar 肯定「類比」(analogy)在論述上帝各種存有模態(mode of being)時的作用。全本聖經都是用位格、關係、擬人的語言來描述這位上帝,這些都是人類存有的模態,在某些層面對應到上帝的本像。那麼關於自由這部 分,我可以同意「上帝的選擇就是祂自己、祂自己就是祂的選擇」的確是一個比在存在主義困局中、只擁有有限選擇的人類還要更完美的自由;但我不太能看到我們 得把上帝的意願和上帝的全知綁在一起的必要。因為人類並不這麼做:我們知道的事,不一定是我們想做的事。我們也有推知和抽象建構與現實相反的境況的能力 (例如:「若昨天下雪,我室友就不會出門了」)。

我們的神論要是能肯定上帝是在永恆中從無限可能中彰顯其意志並執行選擇,成為這樣一位上帝。

這樣相容的預定論(compatiblist predestination)仍在成立,也讓「隱而未現、屬於上帝自己的事」被保留在地圖捲軸中那些上帝和人類的共同歷史中沒有選擇去涉足實行的象限座標中(如「一個二戰不曾發生的世界」、「一個物體可以自由在二、三、四度空間中變異穿梭的世界」),讓科幻小說家繼續幻想,揣度那迷人的上帝意志和這製圖師精妙的製圖工程。是的,上帝不但是那位「以馬內利」的旅者,還是那位製圖師。

比起 Calvin系統的實行本體論、改革宗路線的後自由神學,Arminian與 天主教系統的 實行本體論、以及衛理宗路線的後自由神學更好地貫通了聖經神學和人類的實存經驗。

雖然後自由神學的關鍵是基督論與教會論、口號之一是「禁止無斷猜想」。但在 McCormack 從基督身上的神人位格交流來逐步建構「自由」與「上帝自存」等觀念時,仍然是依靠了猜想而非更仔細的經文詮釋。事實上,聖經直接回答這個問題的地方幾乎沒有。也可以說,我們在福音書的耶穌身上,並沒有看到一個在根本屬性上與人類不同的自由意志。他這個人之所是神的地方,在於他身份上是神差愛子、實行上又是一個被聖靈充滿、全然遵行天父意志的人。

從這裡開始,我們將進入下一個戰場: 對 Phi 2:6-11 的虛己基督論(kenoticism)的詮釋。

[書摘] A Mirror for God and for Us: Christology and Exegesis in Calvin’s Doctrine of Election

fresco at the Karlskirche in vienna (by Johann...

Electing

Source:  DAVID GIBSON, "A Mirror for God and for Us: Christology and Exegesis in Calvin’s Doctrine of Election", International Journal of Systematic Theology Volume 11 Number 4 October 2009, pp.448-465

Excerpt and Summary

Calvin’s exegesis yields a view of Christ’s role in election which may be traced across a spectrum: reaching back into eternity there is the pre-existent Son who is the author of election, the active subject who participates in the decree of election, and there is also Christ the object of the decree, the Elect One, both as the pre-existent Mediator and as the Mediator in time. In his role as the pre-existent Mediator, Christ is the ‘Head’ of the elect, the one in whom certain humans are elected.

Christ the subject of election: The electing God

Concerning the election of Judas, in Jn 6:70 he is one of the chosen; in Jn 13:18 he is not (‘I am not speaking of all of you; I know whom I have chosen’). For Calvin the sense in which Judas is both chosen and not chosen is because two very different kinds of choosing are on display:

  1. First a temporal election is meant by which God appoints us to any particular work – just like Saul who was elected king.
  2. Then Christ speaks of the eternal election by which we are made God’s children, and by which God predestined us to life before the creation of the world.

For Calvin, the eternally reprobate can actually be adorned with God’s gifts which enable them to carry out their office (like Saul or Judas), but this is entirely different from the sanctification of the Spirit. Christ/God in history plays an active role not just in the temporal choosing of the twelve to the apostolic office (and Israel to be His law-keeper and so on), but also according to his divine nature in the eternal choosing of individuals in a salvific sense.

When it comes to Jn 15:16, 19 (‘You did not choose me, but I chose you and appointed you that you should go and bear fruit’), however, Calvin equivocates between assigning a temporal or an eternal referent to it. He first admits that this passage does not ‘treat of the common election of believers’, by which they are adopted to be God’s children, but of that special election by which he appointed his disciples to the office of preaching the gospel’. But he still wants to affirm the clear parallel between this temporal election and eternal election: both the beginning of salvation (eternal election), and all the parts which flow from it (in this case appointment to the office of preaching), issue from Christ’s free mercy. Christ is the author of both forms of election.

Christ the object of election:

The mediating God-man and preexistent Son; Christ is the object of election in an eternal sense by being the one in whom the elect from the human race are chosen (John 15, 17). Calvin’s description of this love is sharply focused on the economy – it is a love of the Son, but it is a love that must be referred to us. The title of beloved belongs to Christ alone. God loves none but in Christ. For Calvin, it is not that we are chosen by God and, on the basis of that choice, engrafted into Christ’s body; we are too lowly, even in an unfallen state, to merit God’s favor. Rather, God looked upon our head, and predestined the chosen to life only as they were members of Christ. Christ is a mirror in which God looks to see us.

It is vital to note that eternal election is not an end in itself for Calvin, but is merely the structural ground of the temporal work of salvation. For Calvin the title ‘the beloved Son’, at least in election contexts, appears to work not at the level of describing immanent Trinitarian relations, but rather the economic relations of the Father, the Son, and the people who belong to the Son. Christ confirm what the Father has decreed on our salvation by actually effecting it.

Christ the object of our faith, the elected Man and the head/ representative of the Elect.

  • Calvin is most interested in describing Christ as the object of faith. Depictions such as “author of the great blessing” (Jn 6:26) and “author of life (Jn 6:33) are less claims about Christ’s divine essence than they are claims about his office of Mediator in time (Notice in Jn 6:32 . Jesus says that ‘his Father, rather than he himself, is the author of this gift.). 創始成終 is understood as a historical category.
  • There is the closest possible correlation between the work of the Father and the work of the Son. The Father wills salvation in the Son, and this is what the Son has come to achieve. By entering the world to execute the Father’s eternal decree, Christ stands as faith’s object in salvation. Our faith is a response to this Father-Son relation.
  • Faith is the neotic basis for a sufficient knowledge of election. The election of God in itself is hidden and secret. The Lord manifests it by the calling in time.
  • Whoever is not satisfied with Christ but inquires/speculate elsewhere about eternal predestination desires to be saved contrary to God’s purpose. The nuance is that their election is not the only thing that God has decreed for them; he has also decreed their faith [in Christ]. Christ mediates the salvation that flows from eternal election by being the object of the elect person’s faith.
  • To be sure, Christ’s eternal mediation is vitally important, but it is so less because of the knowledge it gives about the trinitarian ground of election and more because of the knowledge it gives of free and certain salvation.

Here Calvin speaks of his second distinction of Eternal and Temporal election: The former may be described as election itself; the latter as the salvation that flows from election.

  • Temporal election: for redemptive purpose in time and sanctification. Election is known in Christ.
  • Eternal election: timeless; sealed by the Holy Spirit and inscribed in the Book of Life. Election is in Christ.

As one inseparable (where time connects with eternity) reality, election and faith are executed separately –election in eternity, calling to faith in time.*

Calvin’s logical timeline of election:

In sum, Calvin begins in eternity with election in Christ. While election is properly described as decreed by the Father, Calvin is clear that Christ also participates in the choosing [of specific individuals that will belong to Him]. As we move along the line and enter the world of created reality, we encounter a universal calling of the gospel which is made effective in the hearts of the elect. Here they come to faith in Christ, and experience regeneration and adoption into God’s family.

【Further Reflection and Critique】

(1)

First, the problem in Calvin’s "faith in time" is that it is a depiction of the cognitive aspects of faith only and falls short of a concrete ecclesial narrative form. Too much weight is given to propositional and forensic account of salvation and too little room is left for collective imagination and praxis.

(2)

The dynamic relationship between the "temporal election for divine office" (e.g., King: Saul; Apostle: Judas; Covenant People: Israel; Judge: Samson) and the "temporal election into salvific faith" is underdeveloped.

Calvin only gives us a positive example where the "apostleship as a divine office" corresponds with the temporal coming to faith, which must be correctly understood as the actualization of the eternal decree. But he does not spell out how temporal election for divine office can aslo correspond to the eternal decree in a non-salvific sense: the forever damnation of Judas and forever loss of Saul.

(3)

Paul Helm thinks that Calvin understands the incarnate Christ as a ‘fit, consistent, or appropriate expression’ of the character of the Logos asarkos (eternal Son in Calvin’s conception) not merely of his omnipotence but also of his moral character. This move is to maintain the continuity between the incarnate Son and the eternal Son. But in this way Eutychism looms in (i.e., the incarnated Jesus only has one nature and it’s all about His divinity). How we maintain the distinction between Jesus two nature while keeping the ontological continuity the incarnated and the eternal One  is the challenge!

On the other hand, Karl Barth and Bruce McCormack’s concern that Calvin’s eternal Son has an ‘identity shrouded in darkness’, though seems to be not completely on target (given Calvin’s commentary on Jn 13:18),  must nonetheless be registered as legitimate. For Calvin’s immanent Trinity gives us a weak Son in terms of dramatic personality. He is the electing God, but beyond this affirmation we could only speculate other things about Him.This is because for Calvin the incarnated Son is a mere temporal expression of who He eternally is and not the other way around.

While the economic Son’s role as object of faith is underscored, how this Logos ensarkos would illumine us about the Logos asarkos is not theologically undergirded in Calvinism.

The doctrine that is traditionally called extra Calvinisticum (Lat. "The Calvinistic beyond/outside") exposes further issue. It claims that Logos was also outside or beyond the physical body of Christ. This was meant to protect the immanent Trinity from being reduced to immanent “Duality” when the economic Trinity is at work with the creation during Jesus’ 33 years earthly sojourn.

To explain the function of the extra Calvinisticum in Calvin, E.D. Willis puts it in this way: While Logos asarkos mediated the divine ordering of the universe from its beginning, Logos ensarkos performed the reconciling work without the cessation or diminution of his mediation of this divine ordering.

‘[T]he Son of God left heaven only in such a way that he continued to exercise his dominion over it; the Incarnation was the extension of his empire, not the momentary abdication of it’.

But for Willis, Calvin jeopardizes his own stance on Christocentric revelation by prioritizing election as God’s eternal will, which is discoverable by us outside the Christ event itself. If this is true, then incarnation is relegated as extension that is only complementary (rather than integral or comprehensive) to a bigger revelation. Then this “bigger revelation”, while still will commit in prioritizing the Bible over human reason, really could not defend itself from degenerating into Biblicism, dominion theology, and/or natural theology.

Thus, it is on the one hand vital to see Barth’s criticism [though ill-informed] against Calvin’s failure to assign the active subjective role to Christ in election in good terms—both Calvin and Barth want to affirm Christ as the electing God who mediates salvation in His free grace and unconditional love. On the other hand it is also crucial to understand the excruciating problem with Logos asarkos and extra Calvinisticum posited in old metaphysical framework. Nowhere in the Bible do the apostles claim to have knowledge about the preexistent (asarkos or extra) Logos apart from what we may know in Jesus’s own being and revealed words.

By consequence, it makes much better sense to speak of the Logos incarnandus (the Logos ‘to be incarnate) regarding to the passages on the preexistent Son, and this requires us to adopt an actualistic ontology that grounds our Christology in history: the historical Jesus Christ.

 

[省思] 《時代論壇》裡討論多元主義神學的兩篇文章及回應

Source Link:

1) 徐允傑:多元主義神學是異端?

2)  余達心:「多元性」與「多元主義」──回應徐允傑先生的批評

中神院長余達心博士於回文中其實只為講一句話:「多元性不是多元主義」。完全一模一樣的話我在 回應:「身為基督徒對真愛聯盟的疑惑」一文 中也說過,並在 回應:「身為基督徒對真愛聯盟的疑惑」-他者、多元、與啟示 vs. kockroach 1一文又繼續追溯。

但余博士地位不是我們這些文字無足輕重的小人物。貴為中神院長,為主勞苦、庶務繁忙,實在無須如此小題大作。如此一篇挑剔之文,找旁人、學生、或編輯代打就行。

徐允傑弟兄人在北美,雖不認識,但似乎一位是那種帶有大公精神的天主教朋友,個人最欣賞的合一志士類型。

他在文章結論中引用自己文字說:

多元化有時被看成為一種相對主義,信仰基督教的人普遍不接受相對主義。其實多元化是有其積極意義,相對主義只是在走向極端時才會出現,多元化是要超越相 對主義,並強調溝通及尊重。……每一個宗教群體都擁有自己的真理,而這個真理並不依靠別的宗教而是獨立存在於這個群體當中,後自由主義學者林貝克 (George Lindbeck)就有這種主張。歷史告訴我們,人類對真理的吸收與理解都會隨時間有所改變,此種理解的改變是基於自身的不斷反省互相開放的討論與溝通。」

而余達心則說:

多元性的結構在三一上帝的生命中已非常清楚,在祂所創造的世界就更直接而具體的擺在我們面前;多元結構是上帝創造的命定,也反映祂的內在生命。上帝也將創意放在我們生命中,叫我們各自精彩,多元地發揮我們的生命。但在多元的發揮中卻受著同一的生命規律所承托、孕育和規範。然而世界某些多元現象乃出於上帝的 咒詛,巴別塔所引致的語言混亂便是一個很好的例子。這語言的混亂也暗藏著上帝的救贖,叫人活在文化的相對中,彼此相對化,以迫使人重尋終極的共同基礎

在兩篇討論之下,後自由神學的結論呼之欲出,兩人卻都選擇在此處收筆,甚為可惜。華人神學若停留在這個層次,實在不啻於自限在學界三十年前舊框架。兩人都還未點出彼此最後一句話中的問題。

耶魯後自由學派George Lindbeck 和芝大新基礎主義掌舵 David Tracy 在 80年代火花迸射(在期刊資料庫和或學術網路上用 Lindbeck + Tracy + Public character of theology 幾組關鍵字搜尋就行),關鍵就在於基督教神學究竟應該建基在 自身的不斷反省 中(Lindbeck),還是應以 互相開放的討論與溝通 (Tracy)為趨勢呢?

基督教福音的信息,永遠與外界有差異。 這是福音宣講(keryma)的本質:我們有話要向世人說。

自身的反省,乃是關乎我們該如何說話。開放的討論與溝通,則是聆聽,因為他人亦有話向我們說。

然而,當他人對「我們該如何說話」或「我們信息的內容」表示意見時,我們該試著改變他們的看法,還是接受他們的看法?我們是將「福音」當作一種非信徒、外人也可以一同來修正、討論的圓桌議題,還是堅持我們教會所認信的?如何在尊重他者時又保有自我?-當然,後現代神學一個重要的啟示是,「開放擁抱他者,才能擁有自我」。但上帝不會因為與罪人同在就失去自己的聖潔-事實上祂還要審判這些罪人-罪人一律在神學上指尚未悔改重生信基督福音的人,而教會卻會因與罪人生活的樣式沒有區別而失去聖潔-事實上教會也沒有被賦予審判罪人的權力。

這樣, Tracy 的開放之道行得通嗎? 余博士口中那終極的共同基礎人們尋得見嗎?

如果聆聽是學習不可避免的道路,而捨己去擁抱罪人又是人子冒著失去聖潔的危險-至少在法利賽人眼中(而我個人的神學認為這個危險的賭注甚至是本體論上的)-向祂的門徒所彰顯的道路,那麼教會就沒有理由自大而安逸地建築她的圍牆而不留下一道開通的城門。

Church

church as polis [under heaven]

圍牆和城門的隱喻,是指一種入世而不屬世的,城邦型教會(church as polis)。

這就將我們帶入 Stanley HauerwasDavid Ford 屬於廿一世紀的雙線後自由神學。以及,為了建立一種二序的[多元]社會性政治基礎,我們還需要 Jürgen Habermas -那傳說中從 Lindeck 與 Tracy 的裂痕中展開了公共神學的新路,卻仍維持無神論者身份的男人。

你看,我們在關於教會該如何說話這件事上,是不是聆聽外人了呢?

而這人不但說:「溝通理性。」還說:「互為主體性。」

Basic principle for guiding human society

The Theory of Communicative Action

Theory of Communicative Action

Source: Philippe Portier, ‘Religion and Democracy in the Thought of Jürgen Habermas‘, Culture and Society, Volume 48, Number 5 / September 2011, pp.424-43

[German Jurist] Böckenförde links human dignity to the “creatureliness” axiom.31 Man only accepts his lot after acknowledging his dependence on his Creator and begins to behave according to divine law. On the contrary, Habermas advocates the principle of “artificiality.” Like Fichte, he believes that “man is accidentally minor and originally major.” The role of man is to build the moral order in which he lives. Far removed from the injunctions of traditional authorities, he only has the support of his decision-making ability. This conception of man leads to an open approach to history. We cannot fix things through reference to a world that once was. One must be able to “introduce the novel” into the movement of the world.32

The traditional conception of the state developed by Böckenförde broadens the theory of the subject. He holds that political power directs its legal output through natural law. Habermas rejects this idea because it seems contrary to the imperative of freedom. Political society must be organized by aggregating “free and equal persons” through debate rather than transcendence. “In a democracy,” Habermas writes, “the subject of sovereignty is not fed by a pre-political substance.” 33 Based solely on the exchange of autonomous reason, does one risk leading society into chaos and injustice? Such is the concern of conservatives. But it is not Habermas’ view. Democracy, if it remains open to all forms of wisdom, can produce sufficient communal bonds and meaning: “A pluralistic community can find legal stability by assuming a limited formal consensus regarding procedures and principles.”34

I feel Habermas is right, though it seems to contradict Rom 1:20.

How to establish natural law? This is the biggest challenge for all those who want to argue for the biblical mandate of Mic 6:8 based on Rom 1:20. Neo-liberal Pragmatism (for Habermas and against natural law) and intuitionism (for Böckenförde and for natural law), which one comes as more foundational?
In once sense, pragmatism subsumes human [moral] intuition but it offers much more than that. Thus it has a larger application than intuitionist argument, which fails logically to derive any law that is counter-intuitive.
That is to say, there are right things that are naturally counter native human intuition and can only be appreciated as true and good after certain level of education and cultivation (such as the idea "saving for the future" is counter human consumption impulse. We cultivate the virtue of saving for long-term practical concerns, in which we also suppress our  economic intuition- that is, our wasteful desires).

On the other hand, those who support intuitionism are typically those who won’t simply accept animal and creaturely laws for guiding human society. Rather, they are also as eager to introduce the concepts of common good into the society as other ethicists. But in reality natural law can only do minimum service to this. They fail to understand that many moral codes and cultural traditions are either theological/revelatory in roots or are developed and preserved based on pragmatic concerns ("corporate stability and harmony is best for self-preservation and the succession of one’s own seeds"; cf. Thomas Hobbes).

For example, killing a baby makes me guilty and blood makes me psychologically uncomfortable. This is called intuition and it applies to most though not all people. But to act corporately based on this intuition is pragmatism, not intuitionism- for the ultimate root conviction is that we don’t enjoy feeling guilty, we don’t enjoy having to fear about others’ revenges, and most of us do not have killer’s instinct; we don’t enjoy the biological response to criminal acts (though in a war time- when the practical circumstance demands it, we may acquire the virtue of a warrior by being trained to enjoy killing).

In consequence, as intuitionists and natural law advocates press on the spirit of justice, love, compassion, and so on to be the basic moral code of the society, they have unwittingly become highly pragmatic but their agenda-driven intuitionism will not help them recognize the pragmatic components in their thoughts.

I am convinced that a theology-neutral natural law does exist and can be reached. But the moral codes that flow from it is light years from what we understand as justice, love, and compassion. The Golden Rule of religions ("Treat others as you want to be treated") is not based on intuitionism as some (e.g., Mencius 孟子) would tend to think!  By intuition we all want only our own gain and not others’. It is rather by pragmatic selfish thinking process and by educational effort that we should reach this Golden Rule. And to advance any further we need great help from the explicitly confessional theologies from all sides, (including all faiths).

Now I couldn’t help but feel that by keeping Caesar’s coin to Caesar, Habermas has become the most friendly philosopher  of postliberals.

[書摘] The Time that Remains: Hans-Georg Geyer in the Intellectual Debate about a Central Question in the Twentieth Century

The Resurrection from Grünewald's Isenheim Alt...

Resurrection

Source:

Gerrit Neven, ‘The Time that Remains: Hans-Georg Geyer in the Intellectual Debate about a Central Question in the Twentieth Century’ in Theology as Conversation: The Significance Of Dialogue In Historical And Contemporary Theology: A Festschrift For Daniel L. Migliore, Bruce McCormack and Kimlym J. Bender eds., Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2009, pp. 67-81

My Summary:

Whereas initially Nietzsche and Marx only proclaim the death of God, Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze proclaim with equal force the death of a man (cf. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things, 1994, esp. the last chapter, and Gilles Deleuze, The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque, 1993).

Following Barth, Geyer gives the Parousia the determinative role concerning various theological aspects of reconciliation. The Messiah’s having drawn near is the precondition of a future-oriented and therefore a dialogical mode of thinking. The Parousia points to a nearness of salvation that does not supernaturally demolish time and history, but rather breaks open time and history from within [messianically] by turning to the risky expectation of the Messiah, for whom each moment in time is an open entrance.

This expectation leads to intensive forms of discussion and debate with not just with theologians but also with [critical and phenomenological] thinkers like Nietzsche, Husserl, Heidegger , Horkheimer, Bloch, Sartre, and so on. The focus is the humanity of Christ.

(Hans-Georg Geyer [1929-1999]  studied in Frankfurt during 1950-1954 with Hans-Georg Gadamer, Max Horkheimer, Theodor W. Adorno, and Wolfgang Kramer before he turned to the study of systematic theology (at Gottingen, Berlin, Wuppertal, and Bonn.)

As early as 1962, Geyer declared his agreement with Walter Benjamin’s Theological-Political Fragment. According to Benjamin, only the Messiah himself will consummate all that is happening historically, in the sense that only he himself were redeem consummate created its relation to the messianic.[1] Therefore, nothing historical can relate itself to something messianic on its own account. With this, he distanced himself from the idea that historical convictions, scientific achievements, or political opinions have in themselves the potential to make “the jump-ahead” to a time which is qualitatively new and different. Our knowledge is determined by economic and political factors. The desire to know is driven by a force which excludes what cannot be [pragmatically or in a utilitarian manner] calculated. This [social/structural] force and the history of freedom contradict each other (analogous to the tension between poststructuralism and structuralism/rationalism).

Geyer here introduces the topic of faith in the post-liberal sense. He says, “Faith, getting involved with and trusting upon the message concerning Christ, is at the same time radically renouncing the desire to discover the truth of the proclamation and past history”.

This criticism of metaphysics is also part of the thinking projects of Moltmann and Pannenberg, for whom the future became the paradigm of transcendence. But both of them have felt that they have to leave Barth behind for they see Barth’s system as closed and ahistorical. Geyer does not share this view.

Geyer inherits early Barth’s dialectical theology. He is convinced that our time is an implication of the Parousia of Jesus Christ. His intensive debate with Moltmann and Pannenberg  is concerning the epistemology of hope. That is to say, if God’s new coming in the Parousia is an implication of the concrete identity of Jesus Christ, then how do we find his identity? He doubts whether for Moltmann and Pannenberg “the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ” are constitutive–and not just illustrative— of the exegesis of biblical texts and of the practices of the Christian community. For according to Geyer, Moltmann and Pannenberg’s definition of history and Parousia did not clearly distinguish “the future as an end that we should strive for” from “the future as the goal of God’s exclusive act”. His ultimate criticism is that the theology of Moltmann and Pannenberg is enclosed by a metaphysical correlation between God and the world. Transcendence is devoured by immanence.

To solve this problem, Geyer here uses Husserl’s concepts of protention (the succession of the historical accordance and its end) and retention. The protention in Jesus denotes the continuity between the character of Jesus’ conduct and his fate—death. According to Geyer, the historical fate can undergo an intensification or an ontological deepening “only by the event of the meta-historical resurrection in Easter” [out of theological necessity].

By retention, it means when we look back, the attempts to ignore this fact and to give this death of place in a higher framework can only lead to an idealization of his death or a degradation of it to an empirical fact (which is an unduly anthropologized theology full of liberal residues). Namely, the declaration that in reality this fact implies a jump-ahead should be rooted in only the meta-historical domain, in [the post-Easter] remembrance, which runs backwards. This solution does not have to leave behind the aporia of this [historical] death. For at any rate, doctrinal or impersonal statements are not possible in the face of this death. Anamnesis and commemoration of this death can only give us non-metaphysical and personal truth.

Therefore, knowledge concerning the identity of these Jesus can only be acquired by participation in the process of the actuality of this meaning question in the medium of human language. That is why the question concerning the meaning of the cross is characterized by an infinite openness— as opposed to the enclosure of totalitarian metaphysics. For Geyer, the hope is the qualitative feature of faith, which is a prerequisite for new non-metaphysical mode of thinking.

On the other hand, Parousia concerns the future of which no one knows the time and the hour— it is beyond human calculation. Although we are vitalized by images of the future (e.g., Luke 21:7-33) these do not lead us into the future itself.

rhızomıng ındεxatıon dıs-choıcεs . .

Badiou

There is a remarkable parallelism in the thinking of Geyer and Badiou about metaphysics. Badiou establishes that the death of God and the dead man go hand-in-hand in the philosophy and theology of the 20th century. He calls it “the joint disappearances of Man and God”.

On one hand there is the movement that radicalizes Kant’s approach by enslaving man in his own emancipation (i.e., German idealism: our [finite] subjectivity creates our world). This line runs from Kant via Fichte and Sartre (man is condemned to freedom; man is programmed to be a man and cannot be freed from this program). On the other hand, there is the way of the radical anti-humanism of Nietzsche and Foucault: the absence of God is one of the names for the absence of man.

As Foucault (he criticizes Levinas and Derrida’s anthropology as religion or theology), Badiou does not think this either or situation leaves room for postmodern thinkers like Levinas or Derrida. For Levinas’ appeal to God’s radical otherness in order to safeguard the otherness of the human other falls short to attest to a radical alterity. (This means that in order to be intelligible, ethics requires that the other big in some sense carried by a principle of alterity which transcends mere finite experience. cf. Badiou, Ethics [2001], 22). As for Derrida’s deferral of presence (difference), a sort of religion of messianic delay, Badiou sees something too artificial in its ramification upon the relation between philosophy and religion (cf. P. Hallward, Badiou: A Subject to Truth [2003], 157). Postmodernity has become boring.

Badiou searches for what is empty and open in a time when the [human and divine] subject has disappeared. There is no other possibility than to accept this aporia, this emptiness, and to retain a prospect to point beyond death. For Geyer, this means the resurrection and the coming of the Messiah— within the perspective of time. Biblically speaking this is the time that remains, a time of intense expectation (cf. Tsa 21:11). [2]

Giorgio Agamben, Benjamin’s disciple, in The Time That Remains: A Commentary on the Letter to the Romans declares “what remains is what separates us from the Messiah”. More than the Messiah’s coming close is the Messiah himself.

Giorgio Agamben descubre el limbo

Agamben


[1] The polemical context which Geyer (and possibly Benjamin) set out to argue against includes the following features (i.e., wrong assumptions):

1)       non-realism,

2)       post-structuralism,

3)       the totalitarian features of modernity in the 1960s (for which Geyer thinks Horkheimer’s treatment in the 1930s is exemplary. He lost faith but has not abandoned the project of human transformation of the society into a utopia).

4)       reciprocal freedom: the promises that somebody gives to someone else are ruled by a relationship of absolutely free reciprocity and by a reciprocal freedom.

[2] Here one may become somewhat apologetical over against Badiou. Badiou teaches with Nietzsche that the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob is dead. According to Nietzsche, faith in God as a supernatural power in general will no longer have any real influence, since God is not ascribed any power anyway. There is no such metaphysical God. However, it is precisely this faith that would be necessary to determine the convictions and the actions of man. This may be the case, Geyer answers Nietzsche. But even if God has lost his power over man and that super-sensual heaven has no meaning for the sensual earth, it does not necessarily follow the death of Christian theology.

Through Barth, Geyer has found a way forward: Christian theology has the task to lead faith out of its dogmatic identification with the concept of religion that is still metaphysically determined. Geyer rejects Nietzsche’s analysis that lumps together the God of metaphysics and the God of the gospel of Jesus Christ. Unlike the metaphysical God, the God of the Bible can die.

On the basis of this God’s death, people in faith received the power to be really earthly finite and to be able to die. In the Christian faith, God’s identity can only be thought of appropriately when we take as point of departure the view that the death of Jesus Christ on the cross is God’s act on behalf of all.

The occurrence of cross in history demands remembrance and mimesis: the imitation of God in the praxis of love for one’s neighbor. God is a name that has to be continued in a passionate plea to practice love, as opposed to a concept that asks for ideological representation. Remembrance implies mimesis, through which we anticipate the coming of God in the Parousia.

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